The H-1B Visa Debate Heats Up Amidst U.S. Tech Layoffs

The H‑1B visa program in the United States, designed to allow employers to hire foreign workers in specialty occupations, has become a contentious topic, especially amidst recent waves of tech layoffs. A central focus of debate has been the fairness of H‑1B workers competing for jobs while U.S. tech professionals face job losses. This issue was recently highlighted in a lively discussion on the Team Blind platform, igniting widespread controversy over whether it is just to bring in international talent at such a precarious economic time. The arguments are intensifying as the program's implications for both the domestic workforce and the broader economy are scrutinized.

Proponents of the H‑1B visa argue that the program is vital for maintaining U.S. competitiveness in the global tech industry. They contend that many H‑1B workers fill crucial roles in sectors where domestic talent is insufficient, especially in highly specialized areas such as artificial intelligence and software engineering. Furthermore, they assert that the H‑1B program fosters innovation by bringing diverse perspectives and skillsets, ultimately benefiting the U.S. economy. This view underscores America's historical embrace of immigrant contributions and the enrichment that global talent provides to its economic ecosystem.

However, opponents of the current H‑1B framework raise significant concerns. They claim that the influx of H‑1B workers during times of extensive layoffs can exacerbate unemployment woes among U.S. tech workers. Critics argue that the system can be exploited by companies looking to cut costs, thereby potentially displacing qualified American workers. These concerns are magnified by the economic pressures of AI‑driven restructuring and cost‑cutting measures, which have already led to considerable job losses in the tech sector. These adversarial perspectives highlight the delicate balance required in managing domestic employment needs and the advantages of foreign expertise.

The debate is further complicated by an economic landscape where demand for certain tech skills continues despite broader downsizing trends. As layoffs loom large over companies like Amazon and Microsoft, questions arise about the impact of maintaining or expanding the H‑1B program. The recent low selection rates for H‑1B visas in fiscal year 2026, reportedly the lowest since 2021, only add fuel to these discussions. As the U.S. navigates these challenges, the dialogue about the H‑1B visas becomes ever more pivotal in shaping future immigration and employment policies.

The recent wave of tech layoffs has ignited debates over the H‑1B program's impact on the job market, raising concerns about job security for American tech workers. Amidst these layoffs, there is a growing discourse on whether the influx of H‑1B workers exacerbates unemployment issues for local workers. The article from the Financial Express highlights this divide, stressing how some believe the program allows companies to exploit lower‑cost labor, potentially sidestepping more expensive domestic hires. Critics argue that as long as the tech sector faces large‑scale layoffs, prioritizing foreign workers for specialized roles could undermine existing American talents, intensifying calls for regulatory reforms [¹].

On the other hand, proponents of the H‑1B program argue that it's essential for driving innovation within the tech industry. They maintain that H‑1B visa holders often fill critical roles that are hard to match with domestic talent, fostering technological advancements and economic progress. The article points out that immigrants have historically supported the backbone of American tech success, and restricting H‑1B visas could lead to a talent vacuum that may hinder the competitiveness of the U.S. tech industry globally [¹]. Furthermore, discussions around the program have emphasized the need for a nuanced approach that balances the benefits to U.S. innovation with fair labor practices.

Moreover, the debate over the H‑1B program is not just an economic issue but also a political and social one. As tech companies announce layoffs while still sponsoring H‑1B visas, public sentiment grows increasingly polarized. The perceived competition between H‑1B workers and local tech employees has led to social tensions, raising the call for policy reforms to ensure fair employment practices. The issue, which has already permeated platforms like Team Blind, is anticipated to be a significant topic in the upcoming election cycle, as political leaders weigh the impact of immigration on domestic job markets [¹].

While layoffs in companies such as Amazon and Microsoft continue to draw public attention, the complexity of the H‑1B debate reflects broader anxieties about job security and economic resilience. AI‑driven restructuring has been a major factor in these layoffs, complicating the employment landscape further. As the U.S. tech industry navigates these challenges, the role of the H‑1B program in influencing these dynamics remains under intense scrutiny. The situation underscores the necessity for a thoughtful examination of policies that impact both foreign and domestic workforces, as well as the broader economic implications [¹].

The H‑1B visa program is a critical component of the United States' approach to immigration, particularly as it pertains to high‑skilled labor. Designed to allow U.S. companies to employ foreign workers in specialty occupations, the H‑1B visa is particularly sought‑after in the tech industry. In 2026, the U.S. plans to bring in 120,000 H‑1B workers, a decision that has sparked considerable debate [0](https://www.financialexpress.com/world‑news/internet‑debates‑whether‑it‑is‑fair‑for‑us‑tech‑workers‑to‑compete‑with‑h‑1b‑workers/3855494/). This debate is fueled by contrasting perspectives on whether the program supports the economy by filling critical gaps or undermines it by suppressing wages and increasing competition for American tech workers.

Proponents of the H‑1B program argue that U.S. innovation and competitiveness hinge on access to global talent. The program allows companies to hire individuals with specialized skills that are often scarce domestically. This influx of talent is viewed as a catalyst for technological advancement, potentially creating more jobs as industries grow and evolve. Supporters highlight that immigrants have been at the forefront of significant technological developments in the U.S., arguing that turning away top talent would be detrimental to the nation’s economic health [0](https://www.financialexpress.com/world‑news/internet‑debates‑whether‑it‑is‑fair‑for‑us‑tech‑workers‑to‑compete‑with‑h‑1b‑workers/3855494/).

Conversely, critics express concern over the program's implications amidst recent mass layoffs in the tech industry, with over 53,000 jobs lost in early 2025 alone [0](https://www.financialexpress.com/world‑news/internet‑debates‑whether‑it‑is‑fair‑for‑us‑tech‑workers‑to‑compete‑with‑h‑1b‑workers/3855494/). They argue that during economic downturns, prioritizing foreign workers can exacerbate unemployment challenges for domestic workers. The current system has been criticized for unintentionally favoring lower‑cost foreign labor, which some say reduces job opportunities for U.S. citizens and graduates.

The ongoing discussion surrounding the H‑1B visa program also raises questions about the ethics and fairness of the system. Critics cite potential exploitation by employers who might hire foreign workers primarily as a cost‑saving measure, later opting for layoffs once visas are acquired. Such practices, they argue, could undermine labor market stability and should be a focus of program reform efforts [0](https://www.financialexpress.com/world‑news/internet‑debates‑whether‑it‑is‑fair‑for‑us‑tech‑workers‑to‑compete‑with‑h‑1b‑workers/3855494/).

The H‑1B visa debate reflects broader concerns over immigration policies and labor rights in the U.S. Recent discussions have highlighted the need for reforms to balance the benefits of a diverse workforce with protecting the interests of American workers. With varying opinions on the program’s socio‑economic impact, this debate is poised to remain a significant issue in political discourse, particularly as the U.S. navigates its economic challenges and prepares for upcoming elections [0](https://www.financialexpress.com/world‑news/internet‑debates‑whether‑it‑is‑fair‑for‑us‑tech‑workers‑to‑compete‑with‑h‑1b‑workers/3855494/).

Proponents of the H‑1B visa program argue that it is a crucial component for the US technology sector and the broader economy. The program allows American companies to bring in highly skilled workers from around the world to fill positions that are often difficult to staff domestically. These proponents highlight the fact that the US was built by immigrants and that continued immigration is necessary for innovation and maintaining a competitive edge in the global tech industry. Moreover, there are numerous examples of H‑1B visa holders significantly contributing to technological advancements and major projects within American companies. Such successes underscore the value these skilled immigrants bring to the US workplace.¹

Supporters of the H‑1B system also emphasize its role in inviting the finest global talent, many of whom graduate from top universities both in the United States and abroad. This influx of talent is seen as not only fulfilling immediate technical needs but also as fostering an environment where competitive, world‑class innovations are made. Consequently, such a program is considered pivotal in ensuring that the US tech industry remains at the forefront of global technological advancement. Proponents argue that by denying access to these skilled individuals, the US risks losing groundbreaking ideas and projects to other countries, effectively hampering its technological prowess.¹

In addition to technical expertise, proponents assert that H‑1B workers contribute to the cultural diversity of American workplaces, bringing in new perspectives and insights that enrich team dynamics and creativity. This diversity is believed to lead to more innovative problem‑solving and a more dynamic work environment. The benefits of a diverse team are often touted as essential in an increasingly interconnected and globalized market where multifaceted approaches are needed to address the complex challenges facing the tech industry. Thus, the H‑1B program is not merely viewed as a stop‑gap measure for filling positions but as a strategic asset in cultivating a robust and diverse workforce.¹

The H‑1B visa system has long been a subject of controversy in the United States, attracting both supporters and critics. As outlined in a recent article from the Financial Express, one of the primary criticisms is centered around the timing and fairness of the H‑1B visa allocations amid substantial domestic tech job losses [0](https://www.financialexpress.com/world‑news/internet‑debates‑whether‑it‑is‑fair‑for‑us‑tech‑workers‑to‑compete‑with‑h‑1b‑workers/3855494/). Critics argue that the program allows companies to hire cheaper foreign labor, thereby exacerbating job displacement for American tech workers who are already vulnerable in the current economic landscape.

Concerns over the exploitation of H‑1B workers are also prevalent. As noted by experts such as Virgil Bierschwale, there's a growing belief that the system is manipulated by some companies to prioritize cost‑cutting over genuinely addressing skill shortages [1](https://www.computer.org/publications/tech‑news/trends/h‑1b‑visa‑lottery‑system‑flawed). This could lead to a precarious employment situation for H‑1B workers, who can be easily terminated or mistreated without much recourse.

The debate over the H‑1B visa system is further complicated by the perception that it disproportionately benefits tech companies at the expense of domestic talent. Ron Hira, a critic of the H‑1B lottery system, asserts that it fails to prioritize the most skilled candidates and instead benefits those offering lower wages [1](https://www.computer.org/publications/tech‑news/trends/h‑1b‑visa‑lottery‑system‑flawed). Such structural issues raise concerns about the integrity and fairness of the system, particularly when domestic graduates find themselves competing against H‑1B workers for the same positions.

In the backdrop of tech companies like Amazon and Microsoft announcing layoffs, the criticism of the H‑1B system has intensified, with many questioning its impact on the American workforce [2](https://techcrunch.com/2025/05/21/tech‑layoffs‑2025‑list/). There is an ongoing dialogue about whether the program contributes to economic innovation or merely serves corporate agendas. This debate has sparked reactions across various platforms, including social media forums, where discussions about fairness and economic justice continue to unfold.

The current state of the H‑1B program highlights the need for reform that adequately balances the interests of domestic workers and foreign talent. As the economic and political climate evolves, finding a solution that addresses the concerns of all stakeholders is imperative. Reform could potentially mitigate exploitation and ensure that the benefits of the program are equitably distributed without alienating US tech workers or foreign professionals who contribute significantly to the innovation landscape.

The dynamics of the job market involving H‑1B visa holders and domestic workers in the United States have been a topic of lively debate, particularly in the context of the recent wave of layoffs in the tech industry. The controversy centers around the fairness of continuing to bring in a significant number of foreign workers through the H‑1B program while many U.S. tech workers face job losses. According to a,¹ more than 53,000 tech jobs were lost in the first five months of 2025. Critics of the H‑1B program argue that it exacerbates unemployment for domestic workers and depresses wages, particularly for those in entry‑level or less specialized positions. On the other hand, supporters claim that H‑1B workers fill critical skill gaps and drive innovation in the tech industry.

The juxtaposition of tech layoffs and the continuation of the H‑1B visa program has intensified discussions about its impact on local employment. Proponents of the H‑1B visa emphasize its role in bringing highly skilled talent that complements domestic capabilities. They argue that the program attracts top‑tier talent from around the world, which is essential for maintaining the competitive edge of the U.S. tech industry. However, some experts, like Ron Hira, critique the current lottery system for its lack of focus on merit and actual labor shortages, potentially prioritizing cost‑saving measures over innovation. This critique underscores broader concerns about whether the H‑1B visa system effectively addresses the needs of the U.S. labor market, especially during periods of economic downturn.

The decision to import 120,000 new H‑1B workers in 2026, as planned according to reports on,¹ comes at a time when the system is under scrutiny. Many fear that the influx of H‑1B visa holders during economic instability might worsen job prospects for American workers, as companies might favor cheaper foreign labor over local hires. This concern is echoed in public debates and online forums, as illustrated by.² There, both defenders and opponents of the visa program passionately exchange views about its future and the potential need for reform.

The public reaction encapsulates a range of emotions, from frustration to endorsement of the system's ability to bolster U.S. industry through foreign expertise. However, the perception that the H‑1B program disproportionately benefits corporations at the expense of American job seekers remains a significant concern. This tension is exacerbated by the broader economic challenges faced by the tech industry, such as AI‑driven restructuring and cost‑cutting measures, which further complicate the job market landscape. As ¹ suggest, the outcome of this debate could influence immigration policies and labor practices significantly, impacting both short‑term employment trends and long‑term economic strategies.

In the discourse surrounding the H‑1B visa program, several flaws have been identified that call for urgent reforms. One of the primary criticisms involves the lottery system that determines the allocation of visas. Critics argue that this approach fails to prioritize applicants based on the actual needs of the labor market or the merit of the applicants. Ron Hira, a prominent critic, has highlighted that this system inadvertently prioritizes lower‑cost labor, often at the expense of qualified American graduates. Such a system may inadvertently encourage businesses to focus on cost reduction strategies rather than true innovation.¹

Another significant concern raised by experts like Virgil Bierschwale is the potential exploitation embedded within the current framework of the H‑1B program. There are allegations that some companies might misuse the system to hire foreign workers for short‑term gains rather than genuinely creating sustainable job roles. This possibility tarnishes the program's integrity, raising questions about its true benefits to the economy and its impact on the American workforce.¹

A multifaceted debate has emerged around the socio‑economic impacts of the H‑1B visa program. While the influx of skilled foreign workers is seen as a means to address specific skills shortages, it also generates tension regarding job security among local workers. The tech industry's layoffs, juxtaposed with new H‑1B issuances, exacerbate this tension and fuel calls for reforms in the immigration system. This duality reflects the complexity of integrating the H‑1B program within a rapidly evolving job market influenced by AI and globalization.¹

To address these challenges, a balanced reform approach is crucial. Policymakers are urged to refine the criteria by which H‑1B visas are allocated, possibly incorporating elements that prioritize highly skilled individuals essential to innovation‑driven industries. Simultaneously, implementing safeguards against potential exploitation and ensuring that the program genuinely complements rather than competes with the domestic workforce should form the core of policy considerations.¹

Public sentiment surrounding the H‑1B visa program is divided, with both support and backlash stemming from various societal dynamics. On one hand, many individuals and groups advocate for the program, emphasizing how vital it is for fostering innovation and maintaining competitiveness in a global economy. For example, Elon Musk and others in the tech industry view the arrival of skilled foreign workers as a positive force, potentially fueling new job creation and driving technological advancements in fields where there may be a shortage of skilled domestic talent. This perspective underscores the belief that attracting global talent can enhance the domestic workforce [¹].

Conversely, significant backlash arises from concerns about the program's impact on American workers, especially amid substantial tech layoffs. Critics argue that the influx of foreign labor might suppress wages and reduce job opportunities for domestic workers, particularly in technology sectors that are simultaneously experiencing downsizing. This tension is exacerbated by perceptions of exploitation, where companies are accused of using the program to minimize labor costs at the expense of American employees' job security. Some also question the lottery system of the H‑1B allocation, suggesting it may inadvertently favor cost‑cutting over innovation by prioritizing cheaper labor from abroad rather than addressing genuine skill shortages [¹].

These conflicting sentiments are particularly visible on online platforms like Team Blind, where discussions around the fairness and execution of the H‑1B program frequently surface. Such forums often become echo chambers for frustrations, with many US tech workers expressing feelings of insecurity about their career prospects amid increasing competition from foreign workers. This scenario highlights the broader societal debate over immigration and employment practices in the tech industry. The discussions reflect a larger narrative about national priorities and the ethical considerations of workforce management in an increasingly interconnected global economy [¹].

The future economic implications of the H‑1B program are characterized by complex dynamics that are heavily influenced by both current market conditions and anticipated future trends. The recent tech layoffs in the U.S., which saw over 53,000 jobs lost in early 2025, pose significant challenges, especially as the government plans to grant 120,000 H‑1B visas in 2026 [¹]. Critics argue that the timing and scale of H‑1B admissions amidst domestic layoffs could depress wages and exacerbate unemployment for American tech workers. This concern is amplified by AI‑driven restructuring that dictates job attrition rather than creation.

The H‑1B visa program's impact on the U.S. economy hinges on the roles these workers fill. While some fear displacement of American workers, others suggest that H‑1B holders often address critical skill shortages that domestic candidates cannot fill, thus driving innovation and contributing positively to overall economic health [¹]. However, this delicate balance might shift depending on future economic policies and immigration reforms aimed at either tightening controls or enabling increased worker inflow to fuel market needs.

At a macroeconomic level, the H‑1B program also has implications for industry competitiveness. Tech giants and related industries might advocate for a more robust foreign talent pool to maintain a competitive edge in innovation and global markets. Yet, this necessity is often counterbalanced by protectionist sentiments that call for prioritizing American talent, especially in times of economic downturns [¹]. The policy directions taken in response to these pressures could redefine the economic landscape in tech and adjacent sectors.

Moreover, the debate over the H‑1B program is intricately linked to broader issues of workforce development and technological advancements. As the sector evolves with AI and automation, the roles traditionally held by H‑1B workers might also undergo transformation, affecting demand for such visas in future cycles [¹]. This persistent evolution underscores the need for flexible immigration policies that can adapt to rapidly changing economic imperatives and global demographic shifts.

The H‑1B visa debate is intricately linked with social and cultural dimensions that influence perceptions and policies. This visa program is not just about economics or job markets; it interweaves with America’s cultural identity and its longstanding narrative as a nation built by immigrants. Historically, the H‑1B program has allowed skilled professionals to bring diverse talents to the US, enriching the cultural mosaic and facilitating a cross‑cultural dialogue in workplaces across the nation. However, with recent tech layoffs [0](https://www.financialexpress.com/world‑news/internet‑debates‑whether‑it‑is‑fair‑for‑us‑tech‑workers‑to‑compete‑with‑h‑1b‑workers/3855494/), public discourse increasingly questions whether the cultural benefits outweigh the economic disruptions that critics argue accompany the influx of foreign labor through H‑1B visas.

Moreover, the cultural narrative surrounding H‑1B visas often pits notions of fairness against the ethos of open immigration in a globalized economy. For those losing jobs due to restructuring and cost‑cutting measures, the arrival of H‑1B workers may appear as an economic threat rather than cultural enrichment [0](https://www.financialexpress.com/world‑news/internet‑debates‑whether‑it‑is‑fair‑for‑us‑tech‑workers‑to‑compete‑with‑h‑1b‑workers/3855494/). This perception fuels a sense of cultural displacement and skepticism about the true motive behind the visa allocations – whether they are geared towards genuine talent acquisition or economic disparity.

Nonetheless, supporters of the H‑1B program argue that it invites a continuous influx of innovation and skill that fosters an environment ripe for cultural exchange and technological advancements. They emphasize that eliminating or heavily restricting this visa pathway could stifle the US's competitive edge in global tech [0](https://www.financialexpress.com/world‑news/internet‑debates‑whether‑it‑is‑fair‑for‑us‑tech‑workers‑to‑compete‑with‑h‑1b‑workers/3855494/). This argument draws from the broader cultural standpoint that values meritocracy and opportunity, suggesting that an open, inclusive tech industry reflects core American values.

The cultural conversation extends into the realm of everyday interactions and sentiments within communities, where foreign workers often become cultural ambassadors bridging nations through shared work experiences and collaborative projects. Yet, these dynamics are complicated by sentiments of nationalism and protectionism, especially during times of economic uncertainty [0](https://www.financialexpress.com/world‑news/internet‑debates‑whether‑it‑is‑fair‑for‑us‑tech‑workers‑to‑compete‑with‑h‑1b‑workers/3855494/). As such, the social fabric is tested as communities navigate these multilayered realities.

Discussions around the H‑1B visa often mirror broader societal debates on multiculturalism, diversity, and integration, highlighting both opportunities and tensions. The current discourse surrounding H‑1B visas suggests a deep cultural introspection, revealing how America sees itself in the context of global immigration and work policies. As the debate unfolds, it underscores the importance of finding a balance between embracing the talents and cultures of H‑1B workers and addressing the genuine economic concerns of existing US citizens [0](https://www.financialexpress.com/world‑news/internet‑debates‑whether‑it‑is‑fair‑for‑us‑tech‑workers‑to‑compete‑with‑h‑1b‑workers/3855494/).

The political ramifications of the H‑1B visa program amidst the recent tech layoffs are palpable and multifaceted. As layoffs in major tech companies like Amazon and Microsoft continue to mount, the timing of H‑1B visa approvals has sparked significant controversy. While the program is intended to bridge skill gaps in the tech industry, critics argue it exacerbates unemployment among American workers and depresses wages, particularly during economic downturns. The debate over H‑1B visas has invoked strong political sentiments, with some experts like Ron Hira criticizing the lottery system for potentially favoring lower‑cost foreign labor over qualified US graduates. In this context, policy directions could include revisiting the lottery system to ensure it aligns better with domestic labor market needs, potentially moving towards a system that prioritizes merit and actual skills shortages over random selection.¹

Policy reforms could also address concerns of exploitation within the H‑1B system that critics argue allows companies too much control over foreign workers, risking both their job security and fair treatment. Amidst rising public concern about the potential for foreign workers to be laid off after being hired through the H‑1B program, some policymakers advocate for stricter oversight and regulations to prevent misuse and ensure the program fulfills its intended purpose of attracting top global talent, not just reducing labor costs. This perspective is gaining traction against a backdrop of social media discourse, where debates and outrage over large‑scale layoffs intersect with immigration policy criticisms .

The political discourse around the H‑1B program is likely to intensify as the 2026 election cycle nears. With its multi‑billion‑dollar tech industry and a politically active workforce, the US is seeing substantial polarization over immigration policies. While proponents of the program, including influential figures like Elon Musk, argue for increased H‑1B allocations to foster innovation and competitiveness, opponents call for protections for American jobs and a more rigorous examination of the program’s impact on the domestic labor market. The ongoing debate, which has moved beyond specialized forums like Team Blind to become a nationwide dialogue, indicates a potential shift in policy directions that could either tighten or expand the scope of the H‑1B visa program.³

In assessing policy directions, lawmakers face the challenge of balancing industry demands for specialized talent with the political and social imperatives of protecting domestic employment. The complexity is heightened by economic uncertainties, such as the potential for AI‑driven restructuring, which may redefine workforce needs and influence immigration policy. Future policies might consider these dynamics, potentially introducing more nuanced criteria for H‑1B visas that reflect both technological advancements and labor market realities. Additionally, engaging with diverse stakeholders—including industry leaders, labor representatives, and immigrant communities—will be crucial in shaping a comprehensive approach that supports economic growth while addressing concerns about job security and fair competition.⁴

As the H‑1B visa controversy continues to unfold, stakeholders from all corners are grappling with the complex interplay of economic, social, and political factors. The program, designed to bring in high‑skilled foreign workers to fill gaps in the American workforce, faces criticism amidst ongoing tech layoffs and a competitive job market. Many argue that the system benefits employers disproportionately, potentially undercutting local job prospects and contributing to economic instability. This conversation has gained traction following widespread layoffs in tech companies, prompting concerns about the timing and fairness of importing more foreign workers while American professionals struggle to find employment. The debate reflects deeper anxieties about the balance between economic growth and worker protection in a rapidly changing technological landscape. ¹

Supporters of the H‑1B program emphasize its critical role in maintaining America's competitive edge in tech innovation. They argue that foreign specialists fill niche roles that are hard to staff domestically, thereby enhancing the country's technological capabilities and contributing to overall economic growth. The program is seen as a catalyst for innovation, attracting global talent to US soil and fostering a dynamic and diverse workforce. However, the recent downturn in the tech sector and the resultant layoffs have led to a reevaluation of this stance, highlighting the need for reform to ensure the program serves both the domestic workforce and the economy effectively. This is especially pertinent in the context of AI‑driven changes reshaping the industry, which require a nuanced approach to immigration policies and workforce development. ¹

Ultimately, the H‑1B visa debate underscores the broader challenges facing immigration policies in the US. As political leaders and policymakers navigate the intricate dynamics at play, calls for reforms are becoming more urgent. Proposals range from stricter regulations to improve the system's integrity to more comprehensive overhauls designed to balance the needs of the economy with those of American workers. With the 2026 elections on the horizon, the H‑1B visa program is poised to be a significant and contentious issue. The debate continues to reflect varying perspectives—on one hand, recognizing the program's value in fostering innovation and, on the other, addressing concerns of potential exploitation and job displacement. This discourse is essential for shaping a balanced approach that aligns with national interests and global realities. ¹