AP Biology Review: CRAM Session

Summary

Highlights

• Mrs. Jones gives a comprehensive, fast-paced review session for the AP Biology exam. 🧬
• The session covers exam structure, unit overviews, and test-taking strategies. 🎓
• Focus is on practical strategies including time management and answer writing. ⏱️
• Emphasis on self-trust and utilizing available resources like videos and practice exams. 📚
• Energetic and supportive, Mrs. Jones motivates students to excel. 💪

Key Takeaways

• Master the exam structure - Know the format, time limits, and scoring of the AP Bio exam. 🕒
• Encompass all unit reviews - Brush up each unit with a focus on weak points. 📚
• Utilize test-taking strategies - Practice time management, annotate questions, and identify key points. ✍️
• Leverage additional resources - Access supplementary videos, quizzes, and practice exams for deeper understanding. 📖
• Stay positive and confident - Remember Mrs. Jones' mantra: 'You're penguins, and you're ready!' 🐧

Overview

Chapters

• 00:00 - 01:00: Introduction The introduction sets the scene for a fast-paced cram session hosted from Georgia. The speaker, known for speaking quickly, intends to cover as much material as possible beyond the usual hour-long session, and reassures the audience that the session will be recorded.
• 01:00 - 08:00: Exam Information and Format The chapter provides an overview of the logistics and format of the upcoming AP Biology exam. The instructor, Mrs. Jones, addresses her students, affectionately calling them 'penguins', indicative of a supportive and inclusive educational environment. She reassures them about the outcome of the exam, emphasizing the importance of effort and preparation despite the final result. The session's recording will be available on multiple platforms for the students' convenience.
• 08:00 - 30:00: Unit 1: Foundations of Biology The chapter, titled 'Unit 1: Foundations of Biology,' is aimed at helping students prepare for their biology exam. The speaker encourages students to do their best and assures them that they are ready for the exam. The format of the session includes an overview of exam content, discussion of different units, and recommendation of additional resources such as YouTube videos and TikTok for a deeper understanding of each unit. The speaker has prepared a wealth of resources, including videos and games, to assist students in their revision.
• 30:00 - 48:00: Unit 2: Cell Structure and Function This chapter involves interactive learning methods with practice questions and a Q&A session. Miss McClinton is moderating the chat to assist with answering questions, while participants are encouraged to help each other by responding to queries in the chat. The chapter is designed to enhance understanding through collaboration and additional information sources.
• 48:00 - 67:00: Unit 3: Cellular Energetics The chapter outlines the format of an upcoming exam on Cellular Energetics. It describes that the exam consists of two main sections. Section one is 90 minutes long and includes 60 multiple-choice questions, which account for 50% of the exam's total score. After a short 10-minute break, section two will begin, featuring free response questions lasting another 90 minutes. This section comprises of six questions in total, with two of them being lengthy ones.
• 67:00 - 90:00: Unit 4: Cell Communication and Cell Cycle The chapter covers the importance of both multiple choice and free response sections in exams, emphasizing that these sections each make up 50% of the total score. The suggestion for students is to aim for higher scores in the multiple-choice section due to the potential for earning more points there. It does not delve into specific scores required for grading levels but refers to the 2020 scoring guidelines where a 54 out of 120 was necessary, combating the specific score game by focusing on general strategies for preparation.
• 90:00 - 109:00: Unit 5: Heredity In this chapter, students are informed about the importance of scoring strategies for the AP Biology exam. It emphasizes aiming for a specific passing score and outlines changes in scoring guidelines in recent years. The chapter encourages students to confidently aim for a passing score by highlighting a trusted threshold that could secure their success.
• 109:00 - 132:00: Unit 6: Gene Expression and Regulation In this chapter, students are encouraged to aim higher in their academic goals to ensure they achieve satisfactory results even if unforeseen circumstances occur.
• 132:00 - 149:00: Unit 7: Natural Selection The chapter 'Unit 7: Natural Selection' discusses the allocation of questions related to the topic in standardized exams, as outlined by the Course and Exam Description (CED). Specifically, it notes that 8 to 11% of an exam, or approximately five to seven questions, should be dedicated to this unit. This estimate is confirmed by analyses of past exams from 20120, 2022, and 2023, which showed an average of six questions on natural selection, aligning well with CED guidelines.
• 149:00 - 180:00: Unit 8: Ecology Unit 8, titled 'Ecology,' discusses various aspects and concepts related to ecological principles. The chapter appears to be part of a larger course structure where each unit is proportionally related to a certain percentage of the curriculum. Units 1 through 4 cover topics like cell structure, function, communication, and the cell cycle with specific weights and number of related questions. However, detailed content specific to Ecology in Unit 8 is not directly addressed in the provided transcript.
• 180:00 - 195:00: Science Practices and Conclusion The chapter titled 'Science Practices and Conclusion' covers various topics and their significance in scientific studies, particularly focusing on cell communication and heredity. The discussions include the relative weight of these topics in exams and the observed trends in recent assessments, suggesting that cell communication accounts for around 6.2% of questions. Heredity is covered more extensively, comprising 8-11% of the exam, equating to approximately six to seven questions. Additionally, respiration is mentioned as a part of the curriculum, linking the discussion to broader scientific practices.

AP Biology Review: CRAM Session Transcription

• 00:00 - 00:30 what's up piy bi Penguins so hi we are coming to you live from beautiful Georgia yeah it's beautiful out here today um so we're going to do a cram session today so um if you haven't been to any my other sessions you know that I talk fast and so today is going to be nothing different than any normal session where I speedrun through basically as much as I can get through um so this will probably last longer than hour just because I like to talk and tell you as much as I can tell you um and it will be recorded So if you're wondering about oh you know I will this
• 00:30 - 01:00 be recorded it will be recorded it will be posted on my website as well as it will be posted here on YouTube and then I'll be sharing it out on my Instagram um so hey I'm Mrs Jones I'm AP biop Penguins um so when we started I said you know what's up AP biop Penguins why am I calling all penguins well because of the fact that you were in the session um you are a penguin and you addressed success so in five days or whenever you're watching this recording um you're going to take that AP Bio exam and no matter what happens on that exam you're
• 01:00 - 01:30 going to do your best and your best is always enough and because you're a penguin you are ready and you are going to rock this thing okay um so today's format we're just going to first talk about the exam what does it look like um I'm going to do a quick overview of the units um if you're needing more information about any of the units you're welcome to go to any of the other YouTube videos um I've got YouTube videos for every single unit I've got videos for every single topic in the CED that I made them into Tik toks like I've got games I've got so much stuff for you
• 01:30 - 02:00 so if you're needing a little bit more detail information you could go to any of those other ones um we're going to do some practice questions that are kind of intermingled in there as well as we'll have Q&A okay um so I've got Miss McClinton in the chat um she's going to moderate for us um and so you're welcome to write whatever you are in the chat I noticed that there's kind of a delay so she's in there to try to help me to answer some of the questions that y'all might be having as well as I've noticed in other sessions that y'all like to help each other so if you know an answer to something that somebody's asked in the chat go ahead and answer them back um and at the end we'll just do some
• 02:00 - 02:30 quick Q&A or whatever we need to to make sure that we are all ready and prepared for this exam um so without further Ado let's get started um so first thing there are two sections to the exam the first section is going to be 90 minutes and you have 60 multiple choice questions and this is worth 50% of your exam um and that's your first section then you'll have like a 10minute break I think and then you'll go into section two which will be your free responses and fore responses we've got 90 minutes um and then we've got uh there's six questions there's two two long ones and
• 02:30 - 03:00 four short ones and this is also worth 50% of your exam um and so half of the score comes multiple choice half them come from free response so for my students I tell them that um they probably want to have most of their points coming from that multiple choice like you you tend to be able to get more points in multiple choice um so students always ask like what do I need to have in order to get a 54 3 2 1 um I'm not going to play that game but I am going to play the game of okay if we look at the 2020 scoring guidelines you need a 54 out of 120 now I'm not very good at
• 03:00 - 03:30 quick math but I do know that that is less than 50% it's probably like 45% um that you need to get on the exam now the exam uh scoring guidelines were kind of realigned um a couple years ago and actually that number is a little bit lower but I don't trust that number completely um so I wanted to give you a number that I trusted which was the 54 out of 120 will get you a passing score on the AP Bio exam um and I think that we can get at least 50% of the points like don't I think so um and so that is what your goal is to aim for that but I
• 03:30 - 04:00 always want you to go aim a little higher so my my students always tell them I want you to aim for the four so you could be surprised by a five and fall to a three um so when I say fall to a three I mean like if you just happen to not know something if you were having a bad day like sometimes you don't get the the score you were hoping for um so if you're aiming for that four and you happen to miss your mark you still are going to get a three which will pass the exam um so the there's eight different units I'm assuming at this point you you know this um and so the first student is
• 04:00 - 04:30 on chemistry of life and uh so according to the CED they tell us approximately um what percent of the exam should be in each thing um and so it should be 8 to I'm sorry 8 to 11% which will be about five to seven questions um and so I analyzed the 20120 exam and that was 5.7 questions and then if I pulled up the 2022 and 2023 kind of exams that were released to the teachers um that was six questions on that so like it was a good that's a good number right in the middle um you know there probably about six
• 04:30 - 05:00 questions on unit one unit 2 is on cell structure and function um 10 to 133% so 6 to eight questions um and it did fall within that Mark of about a little more than six closer to seven kind of um for those questions unit three is one of our bigger ones it's 12 to 18% um so it's about 9.3 so somewhere in that ballpark of nine questions is where we saw unit three um four is on cell communication in the cell cycle um no 90 minutes for 60 multiple choice is correct you have about a minute and half per each
• 05:00 - 05:30 question um and then for celf communication that was 10 to 15% 6 to n uh Point U sorry uh questions um it did fall on the lower end on the most recent exams um so it's probably more in like this kind of that maybe like 6.2 ballpark of life um then uh unit five was on heredity um so 8 to 11% this was uh about six questions and there was like kind of more in the seven ballpark for um yeah so respiration is part of the curriculum um so that was in the
• 05:30 - 06:00 kind of the seven ballpark recently six to sorry unit six was on gene expression so another larger this went out um so 12 to 16% and so there about eight questions there hopefully the audio still is good without my earbud in if not I can switch to the other earbud and try that one out um so natural selection was on 13 to 12% so another 20% so that's another one of the bigger chunks um 9.3 questions in the 2020 exam um and then unit8 is going to be iology which
• 06:00 - 06:30 for the most part um either a your teacher may have given that to you as a summer assignment or B um they've quickly ran through it as they were kind of finishing things out um so that's kind of like what the different topics that we're looking at okay so the first section we said is multiple choice so there's different types of questions we're going to have we'll have independent questions which means that we've got a small prompt and there's may be like a graphic there maybe like one picture and you're analyzing that one picture there may be a like a chart or a graph but there's just going to be a very small little bit of information
• 06:30 - 07:00 you're going to have to internalize um and then there'll be one question now your set questions are going to be kind of these longer prompts there'll be this big long uh readings passage there'll be kind of multiple graphs multiple charts there's a lot of information to kind of analyze and bring in um and this is usually about three to five questions it could be up to six but it's you know minimum would be at least three okay um so if you look at the 2020 exam there was 31 to 38 independent questions and 22 to 29 I'm set questions I didn't
• 07:00 - 07:30 think to analyze um the 2022 and 2023 exam until literally 5 minutes before my stream started and that's when I just quickly wrote down the unit numbers um but so it's probably going to fall in that same ballpark where you've got a couple more of the independent questions and less of the set questions because they probably take a little longer to get through those set questions so this is what an independent question looks like you're going to have again a short little prompt and then you've got some questions for it versus your set question I know I flew through that fast um is going to kind of give you a graph
• 07:30 - 08:00 and then there's a prompt um kind of in the more recent exams we've seen kind of multiple graphs um in which to kind of help out with that and then there's this one has five questions that correspond with that okay um so in terms of timing how long should you spend on each one of these okay so you have about a minute and a half per questions but I find that some questions you can get through them really quick and some questions you sit there and think a little longer you have to read The Prompt there's a lot more that goes into it okay um and so I tell
• 08:00 - 08:30 my students that for every 10 questions look at the clock make sure that only 15 minutes has a lapsed if less than 15 minutes has elapsed you're doing good keep rolling how you're rolling okay if more than 15 minutes has elapsed then you probably want to pick it up your pace a little bit okay or you need to know yourself and know okay well I'm going to put in the extra time to make sure I get these questions right so maybe the later questions I'm going to have to kind of Christmas tree them but I'm going to focus on these make sure that these questions are right you can decide that for yourself but I just kind
• 08:30 - 09:00 of wanted to give you a ballpark to figure it out um so 10 questions check the clock for 15 minutes because again you have 90 minutes for this okay so when you're going through them you want to annotate your questions so if there's any important words you want to kind of underline them as you read make quick reference notes to prompts and figures so if you notice that there's an increase and a decrease like and you see some type of correlation to it go ahead and um kind of make those jop those notes so that when you come back to it when you're doing those set questions and you're like oh I need to figure out
• 09:00 - 09:30 what the relationship is oh I can see the relationship and you already have that answer you've already analyzed that as you were reading that prompt you came up with that information and write on your graphs show your work for the math y'all there's math in here and we both know that you are going to make a quick small error if you were just typing things into your big TI calculator you forget the parentheses you forget some unit something somewhere okay um so go ahead and show your work and kind of jot down what you're doing so that you can make sure that you don't make those errors okay um trust yourself so cover
• 09:30 - 10:00 up some of the answer choices maybe like you sometimes know the answers without looking at the answers and so if you come up with the answer on your own then there's a higher chance that that is the right answer um and then use your resources use those figures use those diagrams to help you there's a lot of science practices in this thing and so they're determining can you read a graph can you Analyze This diagram can you bring some stuff together um and so use those figures use your resources to make
• 10:00 - 10:30 sure that you can answer it I tell my students all the time like dude all you had to do was say that this thing was cut off like the picture shows it there and then the picture shows it not there like it got cut off like it's super easy to follow that okay um so then for section two is your free response we're going to have two different types you've got long ecws there's two of them the first one is interpreting evaluating experimental results they're going to give you some data from some experiment they may ask you some questions about that experiment okay and the second one is going to be
• 10:30 - 11:00 your graphing question yes you are going to have to graph the second question on your test is going to be a graphing question okay so make sure you scale those axes make sure you label them if you're running short on time get at least the labeling done you can get a point for labeling your axes and recently you can get a point for just saying what kind of graph it is so if you can't get the whole graph made and you know it's a bar graph just draw a couple of the bars so that your readers know oh they know that this was a bar graph and can go ahead and give them
• 11:00 - 11:30 that point like try to get point to wherever you can of course I think you should do the whole graph because the graph is worth three points but if we can get anything because you're running out of time get something on the paper by getting at least your axis scaled getting your axis labeled and maybe showing them what kind of graph it's going to be um short F frq these are going to be worth Four Points each oh I forgot to mention so for the long F frq it's going to Total 18 points um and so like if your first question is eight points your second one will be 10 if the first one's nine it'll be nine and then if it's a 10 then the second one would
• 11:30 - 12:00 be eight so it's always get a total 18 points there and you can usually tell the points based on the folded terms they did change the exam this year in which they're trying to kind of break up that reading a little bit so you're probably going to see a little bit of reading and then you'll see the qu first question and then you'll see maybe your your graph or your data table and then you'll see your next question okay um so they are breaking up a little bit for you so for those short our cues there are four points each and you're going to see a through D like they are four broken apart the first one is the scientific investigation again you're going to use those scientific uh
• 12:00 - 12:30 evidence you're going to use your experimental design for those second was conceptual analysis do you know biology the fifth one is analyzing a model or visual uh representation that means you're going to have to annotate in some way so in the 2021 exam you were drawing what was going to happen in Late July for this field where there was an invasive species um in 2022 you were um oh gosh you were drawing an evasive species on a food web and then for 2023 you were just putting a a mark on a
• 12:30 - 13:00 phylogenetic tree and we've got that later on in this activity today okay um and then unit six was on analyzing data last year it was a box and whisker so make sure you do know how to work at box whisker we're going to look at some of that kind of how to read a box and whisker later on today um but do make sure you know box and whiskers okay now there are some questions coming in the chat about what you can use so for your graph I recommend you use a pencil you can do the graph and pencil and if you have time go back at in and pen calculus stats um I think maybe one of the physic they use pencil for their entire exam
• 13:00 - 13:30 and their exam scores okay um so I would use a pencil for your graph and then go back over it with pen do not use erasable pen anywhere on your test erasable pen is going to be erased by heat these things these tests are going to be packaged up into boxes they're then going to be taken in trucks hot trucks it is hot outside to go to a warehouse and then they have to be scanned in there's a chance that your erasable pen could be erased do not use erasable pen do not use the pen that it's leads make sure that you are using
• 13:30 - 14:00 like the basic Vic okay like super simple easy ones okay hey M from Marco learning we'll see uh markco learning on um uh what day is it Wednesday um we'll do this whole thing again on Wednesday with markco learning by the way okay so two we're going to be graphing and five we're going to do modification of a diagram that's something that's going to be in your book to kind of help you to kind of know that you're going to have to make those specific things in the book okay um there are these certain task verbs that you're going to see in it this is kind of a screenshot that shows all the different task verbs that
• 14:00 - 14:30 they have um so making sure you know what these task verbs mean will help you to ensure that you are properly answering the questions that they're asking okay um so strategies okay so let's talk about timing first take about five minutes and read through your questions and reum them okay if you know the second question really well you can answer that second question first and then let's say you know question five and you know question six really well go ahead and answer those and then come back and do question one and then three and then four do the in whatever order
• 14:30 - 15:00 you know them this is a points game our goal is to get as many points as possible okay um so read through figure out any of them make any kind of quick notes that you need to okay then you're going to give yourself one long two shorts and then one long and two shorts for the Longs you'll give your 12 20 minutes for the shorts will do eight minutes strategy I've seen some students do is that they write the time at the top of the page and what that means is at that time they move on even if they're not done with that question they move on and that's a way they can actually answer every single question
• 15:00 - 15:30 and at least get the things that they know on the paper okay so if you give yourself 20 for the Longs and eight for the shorts that gives you about 10 minutes it's actually more like 13 minutes but you know things don't fit perfectly the time um so you have about 10 minutes to reck over your responses and add any extra information if you had to move on from a question early because you were still thinking things through go back to that question answer those questions make sure that you have as much as you can okay so format read the question I don't think you heard me read
• 15:30 - 16:00 the question oh yeah and read the question so sometimes I find that students are answering the question and all of a sudden they forget what the question is asking and they go back and they're like oh I'm not answering the right thing okay so make sure you're answering what they're actually asking there's a aonic device that some teachers use is called ATP answer the prompt answer whatever they're asking you okay be sure to label your responses you don't have to label your responses but it does make it easier for the readers um so I recommend labeling your
• 16:00 - 16:30 responses um and then you want to write in knowledge order if you know C go ahead and answer C answer C first then go back to D then go to B then go to a it doesn't matter what order you answer them just answer them so that means at the top of your page you'll have D then you'll have B then you'll have a then you'll have C like it does not have to be chronological order going down your page just label your responses so we can easily find that um I can use the other earbud because that one went out but don't know whether I can get this one to
• 16:30 - 17:00 work but I can try to do that I'll get this one charging in the meanwhile and hopefully it will connect and we can be good to go um so you want to write in knowledge order okay so in the order that you know the information is how you want to be answering them okay um you also want to make sure that sorry I'm going between the trins to try to get the earbud to turn on and now I got lost where I was okay um so Logistics you want to be aware of any type of contradiction okay so contradictions mean that you say one thing and then you say something else so
• 17:00 - 17:30 like um the mitochondria is where we're going to see oxid phosphorilation there'll be the most amount of ATP produced and then two sentences later you say which is why we saw the most ATP produced in the crab cycle be very careful that you don't kind of go back on yourself and say the wrong thing okay um so yeah um I'm still trying to find out where my you're but it has gone missing in terms of the like penting so hopefully you can still hear me and that I did not completely lose everything um
• 17:30 - 18:00 okay so where are we because I need to pull PowerPoint back up I don't okay um so helpful resources that we have okay um so what we could be doing okay is of course AP biop payments if you are not on AP biop Penguins you need you what I have over here okay so if you pull this drop down you're going to see there's all of my review sessions here I've got the 10 days AP I've gone through and I've kind of given you a plan I know we only have 5 days left but I'm just giving you some more
• 18:00 - 18:30 information there okay frq Fridays I've gone through and I have done an frq Friday video for every single frq in the CED I mean sorry in the on AP Central go through pick any random question you want and you can pause the video and try to answer the question and then I of course explain it and then I give you a student answer I show you them okay I've got 120 quizzes games I've got Tik Tok reviews okay there is literally a Tik Tok for every single standard in the CED so if there's a certain topic that you're struggling with go ahead and
• 18:30 - 19:00 answer that one okay um or go watch those videos I've got all my mark learning sessions on here I've got all these pure penguin things I've got so many resources on here that you could just you know get lost in there okay um the volume's better awesome I'm glad the volume's better um I thought this earbud didn't work and that's why I wasn't using it I never use this earbud okay um so there is the website to kind of help you out okay so podcast okay you're a podcast person you want to listen to something as you kind of walk your dog walk your fish walk whatever it is you
• 19:00 - 19:30 walk um absolute recap okay so Melanie kingan is amazing okay so she's got a a a whatever podcast for every single uh topic okay as well as she's also doing videos she's going to be my competition on Wednesday when I go live with Marco learning she's also doing a live stream um so you can check her out she's got amazing resources um also thinking about like YouTube we've got Bosman bio you got crash course amoeba sisters my students love this guy named K Gabe poser okay um so is it sponsored by AP biop Penguins I am
• 19:30 - 20:00 AP biop Penguins um so my students love gay poser um so there was somebody earlier today on um oh gosh what was I on uh Discord and they were bad talking AP Bio penguins and saying that I talk too much which is fine whatever so I told them go check out gay poser go check out Carrera those are the the videos that my students actually enjoy watching those people so go watch them if I'm not helpful for you okay um you could also go and get a revieww book at this point
• 20:00 - 20:30 we're at 5 days you want to go to the library and borrow the book um so that you don't have to buy it number one and number two like it's so short it's am of time you're going to be kind of spot checking getting the topics that you need a little bit more information on okay practice questions AP classroom has tons of them okay so um get your teacher to open up the progress performance checks get everything like that you can on AP classroom okay AP Central has a ton of free responses they've got the CED in the CED you've got um practice
• 20:30 - 21:00 multiple choice and free response questions in there like and I even did a video for those fqs too okay um no there's no Discord for AP Bio Pags I'm in the AP like Discord that like somebody made it's like the AP students Discord um and then there if you want like study cards there's this company called ET it's like learn.com um if you go to them they'll have a short answer questions and then they give you explanations after it you could of course use Quizlet and quizzes is but the great thing about um the etch is the fact that that they've got explanations
• 21:00 - 21:30 for everything plus they link you to my videos um and then of course all kinds of other stuff there and they have it for AP US History and they link you to heimler's videos Okay so let's practice okay so how can we practice we can look at the 2013 release them that's the only exam that they have open for you that you can access okay AP classroom is another place where you can get a whole bunch of resources okay free response if you want to multip practice your free response AP Central they've got all the way from 1999 to 2023 mine is 2020 um and they've got the questions they've got the scoring guidelines they got student responses that's all there for
• 21:30 - 22:00 you to help you to review okay now that we spent 20 minutes going over tips and tricks um let's talk about the content and as you can tell there's no way I'm finishing this in an hour but I'm going to keep on going and whenever I finish I finish Miss M Clinton whenever you need to leave you're welcome to leave um so first thing hydrogen bonds we need to know hydrogen bonds okay so these are just going to be attractive bonds okay there's no actual physical connection between them they're attractive okay so they're very weak bonds there between a oxygen that's bonded to a hydrogen
• 22:00 - 22:30 that's attracted to another Electro negative atom okay so the partial positive that's on the hydrogen is attracted to the partial negative that's on that electronegative atom like the oxygen the nitrogens and so on okay and so there's like this kind of weak bond between them okay you're going to find those hydrogen bonds in your proteins you'll find them in your nucleic acids okay so it's important to know where those are going to be um so we'll talk about that in a second promise okay um you also kind of think about different types of bonds we've got coal bonds we've got ionic bonds calent bonds are going to be sharing valence electrons
• 22:30 - 23:00 while ionic bonds are going to be attractive you got a partial posit I'm sorry you got a positive and a negative due to a valance electron that was stolen okay um so our proteins we need to make sure that we understand the important things about uh proteins and how they're different from other things so they have nitrogen and they have sulfur so if you're given a question in which you're supposed to pick out which one of these is a protein okay you're looking for the one that has the nitrogen and has the sulfur because that's where we're going to see it the sulfur will be in the R Group the Nitro is going to be found in the Amin group
• 23:00 - 23:30 that's part of your amino acid um thinking about the structure of the amino acid you've got a carboxy group so a c bonded o um and then there's a central carbon then you have your Aman group and of course you've got your R Group and then a hydrogen okay um and so the bond that's between our proteins it's called a peptide bond um and I know I'm going through this kind of fast I've got videos on just unit one so like you're able to watch those videos if you need to kind of get more information at any point okay um so those going the pepti bond there's a a directionality to
• 23:30 - 24:00 it you've got an R um Terminus and a c Terminus R Terminus just means the Iman side of the long poly peptide C Terminus is going to be the carboxy side of the and it's going to grow from n to C okay um so in terms of our lipids there's going to be um three different types of lipids you've got your steroids you've got your phospholipids and you have your fats your fats are going to have a glycerol with the Three fatty acids you've got your phospholipid that are going to have the phosphate group and then the two fatty acids the way that they're going to associate themselves is that the phosphate group is going to be polar it's going to have the fatty acid
• 24:00 - 24:30 Tails um and so it's going to make up that membrane okay um so it kind of makes the um phospholipid Bayer and so you're going to see the the non-polar region of it is going to be the interior and you're going to have the phosphate groups on the outside because the fact that the fatty acids are so large the entire membrane is considered non-polar but it's going to actually be antipathic because there's that polar region in the nonpolar region okay because of the fact that the interior of the membrane is um non-polar like our steroids are able to pass through small and non-polar so um
• 24:30 - 25:00 oxygen carbohydrates those things can pass directly through without any type of transport protein which we'll get into an unit too um and then our last one we have with the uh steroids the steroids are just four fused Rings we're going to see them in signaling so in cell communication you might talk about a hormone um and that the steroid hormone how is it going to you know where's the receptor going to be the receptor is going to have to be on the inside of the cell because of the fact that the um steroid is going to be able to pass directly through that membrane and get to that uh receptor on the inside okay nucleic acids are our dnas
• 25:00 - 25:30 and our rnas the big things that are different between those the DNA going to have deoxy ribos while RNA is going to have ribos um there's going to be um missing an oxygen on the second carbon um in the uh in the Pento sugar for the deoxy ribos while it has all of its oxygens in the ribos um you're going to traditionally see RI RNA is going to be a single strand while DNA is going to be a double strand um and then we're going to see that there's difference in the uh nitrogen's bases so that hog bases that we'll see in DNA is going to be um
• 25:30 - 26:00 thyine while in RNA we're going to see URL so if you have a multo question and they have a whole bunch of te's but they're asking you about RNA just go ahead and cancel those ones out okay um I mentioned about the uh monomer for the nucleic I'm sorry for the amino acids um sorry for the proteins being amino acids um so in terms of nucleic acids their monomer is a nucleotides you have a Pento sugar that deoxy ribos or that ribos on the first carbon you've got your nitrogenous base on the third carbon we always talk about like that hydroxy group it's not really a functional group but that's okay um and
• 26:00 - 26:30 then well it is a functional group but then we also have our phosphate um so you're going to have nitrogenous base pentos sugar and then the phosphate is going to make up your nucleotide carbohydrates are going to be um your sugars so like glucose and uh as we said the Pento sugar that's in our DNA and our and our RNA that's a sugar um and so the bond that we're going to see between those are going to be glycosidic linkages um so there was a question I saw recently about Alpha versus beta Alpha linkage means that they're going to be on the same side versus beta flips back and forth in terms of like our glucose molecule um so
• 26:30 - 27:00 starch were uh able to break down because they're Alpha linkages but cellulous were unable to break down because they're beta linkages um the monomer for carbohydrate is a monosaccharide um and all of these are going to like the proteins all of them will go through something called dehydration whenever we're going to take these monomers and put them together to make the polymers now this is foundational information so we're going to keep building upon that as we keep working through them okay um so let's take a quick break we have a multip choice question um so you can go ahead and if you can work FAS F than me you can go ahead and answer in the chat what you
• 27:00 - 27:30 think the answer is um so scientists examine this fold structure of a purified protein that resuspended in water and that amino acids with a non-polar R Group were primarily buried in the inside of the protein so what we see is that there's different layers to our protein folding okay um and so the way that they're going to orient themselves is that we have our non-polar our groups will be kind of facing toward the interior and the polar F groups will be facing the outside okay um so the different levels to our protein we've got our primary structure which is all the amino acids together our secondary structure is our Alpha Helix and our beta PL sheet which is due
• 27:30 - 28:00 to hydrogen bonds and then our tertiary structure is going to be due to the r groups um where they're going to make coal bonds ionic bonds hydrogen bonds Vander walls hydrophobic interaction whatever we have and our Corin areas multiple poly peptides together so this question is kind of asking us why do we see um the non-polar going inside while the polars going outside this really what we're seeing okay um and so back to a question whereas amino acids with the polar R Group were primarily on the surface of the protein which the following best explains the Loc so why are we going to see that the um
• 28:00 - 28:30 non-polar inside the polar outside well we have to think to ourselves well what does polar mean polar means that there's going to be polar calent bonds because there's polar calent bonds we're going to see that there's going to be unequal sharing of that valence electron okay I so since there's unequal sharing of the electron there's going to be a partial positive and a partial negative which screams to me hydrogen bonds okay so let's look through our answer choice and see if there's anything about hydrogen bonds or about the ability to make those bonds bonds okay so a polar art groups on the surface of a protein can hide ion
• 28:30 - 29:00 or form ionic bonds that is not true they're not going to make ionic bonds ionic bonds is a complete positive and complete negative um and those are again attractive bonds um B since polar R groups are too bulky to fit in the middle of the protein so we're not looking at any type of bulkiness here um because we're looking at the the polar versus non-polar um these R groups are similar in size um non-polar R groups cannot form hydrogen bonds with water or push into the middle of the protein this is why we see oil kind of floating on the top of um water whenever you see oil and water mixing they kind of like float
• 29:00 - 29:30 at the top because they can't form those hydrogen bonds and then D of course talks about nonpolar R groups that are different part uh parts of the protein from coal bonds with each other to maintain that protein structure okay um and I just realized I didn't say something earlier about nucleic acids um so I mentioned about the directionality that we have with our proteins there is a directionality with our nucleic acids in which we have a five Prime end and a three prime end the five Prime end is going to be where we have our phosphate group and the three prime end is where we're going to see our hydroxy group The hydroxy group that is on the um sugar okay um and so DNA and RNA is going to
• 29:30 - 30:00 be made five Prime to three prime and we're going to keep getting through that but I just want to make sure I did mention that um directionality that we have for it so that was unit one let's get into unit two and as I said this is a cramp session I'm going as fast as I can to make sure that we can kind of get as much as we can in as much time as we can and I know y'all don't want to hear me rabber along okay so in terms of organel okay so you don't they're not going to ask you a straight question of what does the mitochondria do and do not ever tell them the spous of the cell oh my gosh um
• 30:00 - 30:30 anyway so they're not going to ask you specifically what does it do they're going to kind of ask you that oh there was this thing that was damaged there's this problem here and because of this problem um we're seeing that you know which uh which organel was uh affected because of this issue okay um so I've seen before with like Tacs that they talk about that there's a um non-functional protein and this hydrolytic enzymes which organal is affected and you're like oh well that must be the lome because responsible for breaking down or there
• 30:30 - 31:00 was a question on the release exam about the immune system in a maccrage maccrage engulfing something in which these answer choices shows what happens when it engulfs and you would have to be like oh the lome is responsible for digestion so of course it went to that lome okay um and so quick rundown our nucleus is where we're going to see our DNA that's where we're going to see replication transcription trans I'm sorry no replication and transcription are going to take place in the nucleus um and then of course that RNA is going to leave the nucleus to go out into the cytool we've got ribosomes in our cytool the rabones are going to be responsible for protein synthesis um and so that's where the
• 31:00 - 31:30 translation is going to take place um we have a ruar ruar is where we're going to have those rabones once they get the signal peptide to move to the membrane so we can make the proteins that are responsible for secretion as well as membrane proteins so proteins that are sitting in that membrane um we do have our smoothie R the Smoothie is responsible for detoxification um and so it's also for calcium storage and so calcium is going to be a secondary messenger and so we're going to see um that we have that calcium that's going to be kind of responsible for that secondary messenger and releasing that information out okay okay um we do have our mitochondri mondra is where we see
• 31:30 - 32:00 the side of oxid phosphorilation as well as our creb cycle um so in The Matrix is where we see the CP cycle and then in um like the the chisty of the metaconda where we're going to see the oxide phosphorilation um and yes I know you're going to make a 100 on the exam um we also have our goldi our goldi is responsible for packaging and modifying the materials um that come from that Ru e r okay um and then we have our Proxes and we that are going to be for detoxication in in forms of making the hydrogen peroxide we have food vacul that are going to be made when you go
• 32:00 - 32:30 through phagocytosis and bring something into your cell um the plant cells are going to have contractile vacul I'm sorry they have Central vacul to store the um water and other waste products and then we also have contractile vacul that are responsible for pumping out water a lot of our um organisms like protozoa that live in freshwater environments water is rushing into their cells and so they need to have the contractile vacle to pump that water out so the cells don't burst so we had this question on I can't remember what year but it's not that important in which they're asking you to draw so this is how we would maybe see
• 32:30 - 33:00 question five on the exam is that you would have to annotate a diagram so drawing of this diagram okay um and so what we're going to see is that um where is the information so if they want to know the the path of gene expression so the DNA is going to be my nucleus and so we go from DNA we go through transcription we then make the RNA and the RNA is then going to leave the nucleus and it's going to go to a ribosome in this case since I'm making a membrane protein it's going to leave and go to a rabone that's found on the ruffy r okay so the ruffy r is then going to go through translation we synthesize that protein um and then that protein is
• 33:00 - 33:30 going to go to the goldie for packaging and modification so that's where we're going to modify it slightly will add some stuff um it then kind of figures out where does this protein need to go and then it puts it another vesicle and the vesicle is then going to move to plasma membrane okay notice that I sto the arrow at the plasma membrane because of the fact that we wanted to make sure that we um went to the membrane because it's a membrane protein and we did not go past it so very very careful when you're doing diagrams that you are very clear about where you're drawing the the arrows to go to okay um so in terms of
• 33:30 - 34:00 the other part of unit two this is about kind of membrane transport how do things get across the membrane so first let's think about what does Ming look like so as I said before it's made up of phospholipids so he has these little phospholipids there's a phosphate group and there's your fatty acid Tails Tails can either be um saturated or unsaturated if they're saturated means that there's no double bonds if they're unsaturated means there's at least one double bond it causes a kink in the the uh the tail um so they don't compress as easily okay we also have cholesterol in there cholesterol is in there it's for responsible for maintaining the um the
• 34:00 - 34:30 fluidity of the membrane and making sure that we kind of can keep it fluid because we need to make sure that things can come across our membrane as well as because too rigid it could break in it's problematic okay we also have transport protein so this would be considered a channel protein because it's like a um a protein that kind of goes across the membrane and materials can flow through it like it's a tunnel okay we also could have carrier proteins carriers are going to bind um and then that caus a confirmational shape change which then allows it to move across the membrane um we also have glycolipids and glycoproteins these are going to be responsible for um like cell cell
• 34:30 - 35:00 communication and being able to recognize our cells okay um we also have I was going I'm going lots of places anyways so in terms of our membran transport there's different types you could have passive transport passive transport means that I'm not requiring any type of energy it is going to move straight across that membrane okay so there's two types we've got simple diffusion simple diffusion goes across without the use of any type of resources um so like water can smid in through not a lot but a little bit can smidgeon through but we're mostly looking at like our steroids we're looking at like
• 35:00 - 35:30 oxygen carbon dioxide that are small and non-polar we want things that are non-polar to get straight across I mean yes fiveable is another resource you could also use um know it like and like no and then a t at the end they've got resources out there too for you um okay so that was our simple we could also have facilitate diffusion facilitated diffusion means that um there's going to be some type of channel protein or a carrier protein um so facilit means that it's still going down as concentration gradient we're still going from high concentration low concentration it still does not require any type of energy um
• 35:30 - 36:00 but what's happening is that it needs a protein to get across the membrane so that's going to be usually our polar materials okay and then active transport requires to have some type of energy there's going to be ATP in some way shape or form um so that would be um like our sodium potassium pump that would be like a proton pump usually the word pump signifies that we're in active transport and so that means it's going to go against this concentration gradient so like for example if you at the top of a hill on your bike you could go right down that hill without any type of energy right but then your um if you
• 36:00 - 36:30 had to get back up that hill you're going to have to pump those bikes so that's active transport so if we go from low concentration to high concentration that's active we need to put some type of energy in order to get back there okay um and so that's usually going to be like materials against conate okay we also have active transport in terms of like bulk transports so you have pinocytosis and phagocytosis phagocytosis is going to be cellular eating so we're going to have these little pseudopods they extend out they surround the the material and then they make a food vacu that then fuses with the lysosome pinocytosis um when you drink a lot it makes you pee no um so
• 36:30 - 37:00 it's going to be like trying to gulp in extracellular fluid which brings in a lot of our solutes so here's our paramia it's a unicellular protus that has contract all vacul to remove excess intercellular water in an experimental investigation paresia replaces Salt Solutions of increasing osmolarity the rate at which the contractile vacu will contracted to pump out excess water was determined imp pled against osmolarity of the solutions as shown in the graph which foll is the correct explanation for this data okay so what we have here is we've got this line right and this is showing us that as osmolarity increases the rate of contractions decreases okay
• 37:00 - 37:30 so I'm noticing that correlation I'm seeing that it's got this negative interaction um and so I'm going to make myself a note as osmolarity increases rate of contraction decreases and that's going to kind of help me to think this through okay and so as I look at my answer choices I'm kind of looking for that to be there because that's the answer that I come up with on my own okay um so as higher osmolarity over here lower rates of contraction are required oh that's right because more salt diffuses into maramia but it's talking about where pumping out excess water so we're not looking at that the
• 37:30 - 38:00 salt is diffusing we're looking at that there's an excess water in addition that salt is a charged ionic material it's not going to pass across that membrane without some type of transport protein so we're not going to see the salt just flowing into my cell like that okay the contraction rate increases cool as osmolarity decreases cool because the amount of water entering the parames by osmosis increases okay so the osmolarity is looking at the concentration of the solution so if I move this way I'm moving into more High photonic environment which means there's more free water and that free water can move
• 38:00 - 38:30 across that membrane okay to where there is of course a higher concentration okay which that is my answer then we look at C the contract vacu is less efficient at higher osmolarities because of reduced amount of ATP there's no information from this diagram that would make me think that so I can't really think that it's going to be SE okay and then D an isoosmotic salt solution there's no diffusion of water in or out of the paresia so the contraction rate is zero at no point do I see that we're in an ISO OS IC salt solution um so I have no way to know that okay so that would of
• 38:30 - 39:00 course be another answer that's not true okay and I'm seeing a whole bunch of bees poping up in the chat great job all y'all so we have another one okay and I didn't mention this earlier and I should have mentioned I'm sorry we're just speedr rolling um and that's kind of why the questions in there is to force me to talk about certain things I kind of was strategic in this um so we've got these different cells okay and so they've given you the formula yes you'll have the formula on the formula sheet you're going to have to do um a cube a cylinder um you also could have to do AED spere and then a rectangular solid if I remember correctly or rectangular Pro
• 39:00 - 39:30 maybe I can't remember um but I have math videos on all those if you're needing math videos on those I do have those for you okay anyway so I've got these different um cubes and they're asking you um which of the following would be most efficient at removing waste okay so removing waste I means that I need to have a large surface area to volume ratio so there needs to be a large surface area and that large surface area is going to allow for the increase of materials to move across that membrane without having to move as far okay and I love how people are going a and first one because I didn't really
• 39:30 - 40:00 label them so good job on y'all um and so like some students are like wait I have to now do all this math no y'all you do not have to do the math okay even if you want to do the math cut that math make it one two three and four and see what the difference is do not try to do 10 squared that's going to take you too much time if you see math questions on it and you're you're able to kind of reduce the numbers make them into smaller numbers to kind of help yourself out do that do not use the numbers they have that is a strategic way that you
• 40:00 - 40:30 could try to do this math okay but if you did the math you would have found this you would have found 600 1,000 and we giving you a surface area volume ratio of 6 okay and so if you compare that to all the other ones it's going to have the largest surface area volume ratio with this first one so that is going to be um the correct answer on this one okay you're all wrong I'm sorry they're all wrong okay anyways sorry I should have brought water up here and I did not um so unit three is on our cellular energetics okay so this is this is one of the larger sections that we see in our um on the
• 40:30 - 41:00 exam remember it was like the second highest percent or the third highest percent um and so this mostly is looking at enzymes okay and um looking at Inhibitors and competition and looking at the enzyme how do we denature an enzyme okay um so real quick making sure that we understand this because my students mess this up and I want to make sure that you do not mess this up is that if you get outside of the PH range it's going to den nature on both sides okay um so if it gets too um low in the pH there's too much H pluses it will
• 41:00 - 41:30 denature if it's too high in PH it's going to denat okay now the part that my students messed up temperature okay if the temperature gets too low outside of the range temperature gets too low okay it does not denature the mo molecules start moving a little bit slower because the molecules move slower the reaction rate is slower because of the fact that there's less kinetic energy and there's less of the collisions taking place okay versus if we get into a high temperature condition the PO moving so fast because of the particle moving so fast the bonds
• 41:30 - 42:00 break and thus leads to a denitration so too low temperature is just decrease of rate because of the fact that the kinetic energy decreases but if it's too high of temperature it does the nature them okay um so when you think about those enzymes you also think about competitive versus non-competitive Inhibitors competitive Inhibitors are going to buy into the same active site versus nonc competitive Inhibitors are going to buy into a different site both of which are going to change the shape of the um protein okay so if you have um anything binding to a protein it will will always change shape okay um so that change of shape is what's going to lead
• 42:00 - 42:30 to what we see happening afterward okay that's why the enzymes work the way they do my husband's trying to bring me water it's kind of cute anyways um so I do not e water it's fine thank you um so we have cell respiration this is going to take place in our mitochondria okay um and so well not all mitochondria so the first step of cell respiration is glycolysis okay so glycolysis is going to be where we have the sugar spling St so we have our glucose and we break the glucose into two pyruvates we make two ATP and we have two nadhs that are formed this takes place in the cytool
• 42:30 - 43:00 which means that all things can do this procars and UK cars can do this in a procar they usually going to go through fermentation afterward because the fact that we need to regenerate that nadh otherwise we run out of NAD pluses in case you don't know what I mean by nadh nadh is a material that is holding the electron to take it to electron transport chain if I have all of them holding the electrons and there's nothing to take more electrons I'm not going to be able to go through glycolysis so the fermentation process is going to allow you to um kind of let go of that electron is going to allow you to oxidize the nadh so that you'll
• 43:00 - 43:30 be able to continue um kind of breaking down that glucose okay um so after we make the pyruvate we go through pyruvate oxidation which did I give yeah I did okay so after we go pyate oxidation this is where we're going to go from pyit into aceto a and then it's going to enter into the CB cycle the CB cycle is where we're going to finish the breakdown of our um the uh the glucose okay there's a question in the chat the difference between osal osmolality is just about the units osmolarity is using
• 43:30 - 44:00 um kind of moles into um liters and osmolality is into kilograms of material somebody asked me that recently anyway so back to the crab cycle so we're going to make ATP we make uh we release the carbon dioxide so at this point we've released all the carbon oxide which means that all of our um glucose has been broken down we make nadh and fadh2 okay you're not going to be asked the specific numbers of any of these okay if we ever see a question it's usually them giving you a diagram on the mock exam um there was a question where they gave you
• 44:00 - 44:30 the diagram of glycolysis and asked you how much ATP is made do we know that answer yeah we know that that's two ATP but they also gave you a diagram okay I'm sorry your brain hurts I'm going as fast as I can to make sure that you can get out of this soon um and then the nadh and fad2 are then going to go to the electron transfer chain the whole function of the electron transport chain is going to be to allow these high energy electrons to um release that energy which pumps a proton okay so it's going to pump that proton into the intermembrane state you see how we have these two different membranes the mitochondria is double membrane okay so it has the inner
• 44:30 - 45:00 membrane and it has of course its outer membrane so we're going to pump those protons into this inter membrane space so it leads to this High concentration so it's a low PH okay um and that is electron transer chain oxida phosphorilation um then also has the chemiosmosis which is where we allow ATP synthes it's going to be a protein and as the proton binds to it it changes shape which allows it to kind of move like a rotor almost um and it moves the proton back across the membrane which allows for the phosphorilation of ADP to make ATP okay now again the uh
• 45:00 - 45:30 citric acid cycle crab cycle and the oxid phosphor relation is taking place in the mitochondria so if you don't have a mitochondria you traditionally don't go through these steps okay photosynthesis has two steps you've got the light reactions light reactions are going to be um here you've got the light shining down on your photosystem photos system 2 is first um that causes this electron to kind of move to a higher energy level and it goes down to an electron transport chain again pumping protons across that membrane okay um so when the protons move across the membrane they move into the thilo covid space um and then later on we'll go through ATP synthes so that they can synthesize
• 45:30 - 46:00 ATP so we'll synthesize ATP between phot system 2 and phot system 1 um the electron then goes into photosystem one gets more light which then allows it to go to nadph nadph again is holding the electron the way you remember this is that the P is for photosynthesis so nadph is going to be found in photosynthesis well nadh is not so they can sometimes trip you up on a question by if it's about photosynthesis they could put nadh as an answer choice and you should know that that is not the right answer because that is in cular Iration okay um versus n adph is in photosynthesis okay um and so um we also
• 46:00 - 46:30 have the water splitting step it's called photo Lis this is where we're going to uh break down that water to regenerate that electron which I didn't mention before but at the end of the electron transfer chain um there's an oxygen here that takes that electron and it forms water um and so it's just the reverse of what we saw in the electron transport chain of C respiration taking place in photosynthesis okay um and that's what gives the electrons to this process okay so the ATP and the dph then goes over here into our Calvin cycle the
• 46:30 - 47:00 Calvin cycle is going to start with our carbon dioxide we use the enzyme Risco and rubp and then we're going to uh synthesize something called g3p if you really looked at the steps of glycolysis you would see that there's actually two g3ps um it's an intermediate step um before it moves into pyruvate so it's actually I think like the fifth or sixth step of glycolysis um but so this is just to show you that we have the same intermediates in these two processes but they're not exactly reverses of one another and then you will regener at the rubp because it's a cycle you have to restart everything again okay um and so
• 47:00 - 47:30 notice here that there's nine atps that are used but there's only six nphs that are used the reason why is because we have two different ways electron can flow through the light reactions so we have linear electron flows which I explained okay so we go from PS2 we go through the ETC PS1 and then we have the uh nadph so it forms a one1 ratio between ATP and nadph um cyclic electron flow is going to go from here from photos system one and it comes back down this electron transfer chain so they can additional atps without generating the nadp hes okay that was on the AP exam
• 47:30 - 48:00 last year I think it was question maybe four um in which they asked you about that process they gave you the diagram and then you had to apply it okay now the diagram looks slightly different okay so just be careful that when you see a diagram on the test you don't freak out they're doing their own drawings and because they did their own drawings it's going to look slightly different okay um so where we at oh so also don't get stuck on like all the Minor Details so kind of just keep in mind what's going going in was coming out where take place and why is important okay so this was the 2015 exam
• 48:00 - 48:30 okay now I know it's on a different CED but still um yes this is available after live stream is over um so here's our cell respiration it's going to show you all the different steps and so you just had to apply it okay the question was asking a contribution of each and how that makes um ATP so if I look here I can literally see ATP in this diagram I know that ATP is formed okay so you could talk about the ATP is formed by attaching like by a subate phosphorilation you could also talk about that we make the nadh's and then
• 48:30 - 49:00 if you look at the diagram you can see that acetyl Co a is also right here and is in the previous diagram so you can talk about how the acoa is moving into the KB cycle okay you could use the diagram to answer the question so use those diagrams whenever you can use those diagrams okay um so the second part was asking about the intermed of the CB cycle again we're making the nadhs that's going to go to electron transport chain the fadh2 that will go the electron transportation and I think they're even shown in the picture see you can see the nadh there so you could say that um the nadh was formed and bringing these high energy electrons to
• 49:00 - 49:30 the electron transfer chain so you can literally see it taking place in the picture which helps you to explain it you also see that there's GTP and GTP is formed by substrate level phosphorilation in case you don't know ATP is a Denine triphosphate GTP is guanosine denos guanosine triphosphate instead of it being an adenine on this uh nucleo side it's a guanine it's basically the exact same thing we have ttps and ctps also okay um um so you could have mentioned any of these about the high energy electron for electr
• 49:30 - 50:00 transportan nadh and fadh2 talk about pumping the protons against concentration gradient when you get to electron transfer chain we're talking about the GTP is for the substrate level phosphorilation okay um so in terms of our forming of our proton gradient okay so we can form this gradient um the reason why is because we have these high energy electrons and it's going to allow us to form that gradient okay so what does that gradient do they this one requires you to know something okay we're going to use that grad is going to go through ATP synthes to synthesize ATP by oxid phosphorilation so it provides the energy for oxid phosphorilation of ADP um and then we're going to have the flowing of those protons through that
• 50:00 - 50:30 ATP synthase um to generate the ATP okay um so they then go on and they want you to justify so that's the thing you're going to see a lot in these exam okay is justify something why do we see this well all organism perform glycolysis well why do all organisms go through glycolysis well all organisms go through glycolysis because it must have taken place when there was no oxygen I'm sorry I'm ahead of myself when there was no mitochondria so it precedes this mitochondria okay also talking about that um we had evolution in which um it
• 50:30 - 51:00 was a selective Advantage those that could go through glycosis were able to survive okay um then you talk about anerobic the fact that it predates the atmospheric oxygen it doesn't need oxygen for this process and then it only colors inol because the predates are um membrane bound organel okay so um yes and then they had you do math yes you're going to have to do math and it may not be math that's on your formula sheet yes that's the reason I put this question here is because this is math that isn't on a formula sheet sheet that you would have to come up with so they tell you the researcher estimates in certain organism that there complete metabolism
• 51:00 - 51:30 of glucose produces 30 molecules of ATP so when I break down glucose I get 30 atps cool um the energy released from the total oxidation of glucose under standard conditions is 686 okay so if I was to figure out how much energy is in glucose and I oxidize it completely there's 686 kilocal per mole in there okay but ATP to ADP is only 7.3 kilal okay so I have to calculate the amount of energy that's available from the hydrolysis of 30 moles of ATP so how
• 51:30 - 52:00 would I do that well I know that there's 30 molecules of ATP each of them is 7.3 so I'm just going to multiply and that gives me 219 kilal okay and the reason why it's a kilal is because the mole and the mole cancels out because you have a mole in the numerator a mole in the denominator and they cancel leaving you just with the kilocal okay so then it asks you to calculate the efficiency of the Total ATP of one okay so the efficiency means how good is it okay um well we made 219 we should have had 686 so the efficiency is going to be 219
• 52:00 - 52:30 divided by 686 which means it's 319 so it's either 31% or 32% um and yes you do have a formula sheet on the exam it's the first page of your booklet um that formula sheet is actually going to um you can't rip it out but it doesn't have all the formulas you might need because they assume that you can do dimensional analysis which is what this is okay um so you got 31% to 32% and it it describe what happens it's going to be lost in the form of chem of heat okay
• 52:30 - 53:00 um I'm sorry that that's chem um dimensional analysis is not just chem it's had you can convert units and yes you'll be able to use calculator it's a TI calculator any of the calculators you want um there are certain ones that aren't accepted so just check CB website about which calculators you can use okay so now I always I know this is calculate I always tell my students write this in complete sentences I would just say the efficiency is 32% the amount of energy is 219 it does not take you that much longer to write three more words and make it into a sentence okay um so on to unit four and it is almost 53 minutes
• 53:00 - 53:30 I'm so sorry y'all so seller communication okay if people keep asking me what do I predict is going to be on the exam I predict there'll be a cell communication question there's going to be some type of diagram that you're going to have to analyze and yes ti84 will be allowed on the exam okay um and so the three steps of signal transduction is you have your receptor transduction and then your response the receptor is shown in the picture you can see it's a g protein receptor you can see that the Lian binds to the receptor because of the fact that this is a a membrane bound receptor that tells me that my ligan must be polar because it
• 53:30 - 54:00 can't get through that membrane if it was non-polar it would be found inside so that's a question that sometimes might ask okay so once the Lian binds to my receptor it's then going to cause something else to happen so I can see here's step a and the step B it's bound and that activates this adental cyclas okay ien see the adalone cyclas is going to go make the ATP into cyclicamp which then activates my protein canas which then causes the calcium I mean not calcium chlorine to be secreted from the cell okay so they're showing you this pathway and then they're going to ask you what happens if so what happens if
• 54:00 - 54:30 the Lian can't bind what happens if there's a mutation that keeps something on what happens if okay so what happens if the adental cyclas could not become activated what happens if this step does not happen well if this step doesn't happen then that means we're not going to see cyclicamp being activated okay we won't see the ATP making into cyclic well if we don't see the cyclic becoming formed that means that we're not going to see protein chinise um becoming
• 54:30 - 55:00 activated if protein chinise doesn't get activated I don't secrete calcium sorry chlorine if I don't secrate the chlorine then I'm not going to see water being released out of my cell okay um the question was actually about chalora and about the fact that you like lose your water in colala um if you have a chaler infection um and so they were asking well why and so this was the reasoning why it's because the chlorine gets pushed Out and because the chlorine gets pushed out it makes it hyperosmotic or hypertonic side and the water falls follows it out which is why you have um
• 55:00 - 55:30 very runny stools um when you have Chala and you become very dehydrated okay um so other things that we have in unit four is on our checkpoints okay so when we think about the cell cycle okay let's first talk about cell cycle actually am iead of myself yeah let's talk about the cell cycle okay um so in the cell cycle we've got um the G1 which is where the cell's going to grow we have the S which is our DNA synthesis this is when we're going to go through replication and make a copy of that DNA then we go through cell growth again the G2 against C grows okay um so we have a couple different checkpoints okay the first checkpoint you're going to have is the G1
• 55:30 - 56:00 checkpoint this is making sure should I divide should my cell go through division should I make a copy of this cell okay um the DNA synthesis then is where we're going to synthesize that DNA and in the G2 is going to make sure a did I completely make a copy of that DNA and the copy that I did make okay um is there any major errors to it so it's going to check to make sure that everything's good okay and then we go through mitosis okay mitosis is just going to be nuclear division so dividing of that nucleus in half okay so we have
• 56:00 - 56:30 have the M checkpoint which is really cool because it takes place in the metaphase which is when the chromatids are lining up on that metaphase plate so since our sister chromatids line up on that metaphase plate this is going to ensure that we have every single microt tual attached to every single cister chromatid to ensure that when I do go through anaphase and I separate them that I'm going to get one set of chromosomes to go to one side and one set of chromosomes to go to the other so the M checkpoint ensures that we get equal division of our nucleus okay um so I did mention a couple words just a second ago and I'm so sorry um so what
• 56:30 - 57:00 we did with the G1 the S and the G2 that was all interphase that's kind of in between cell division and the mitosis is when we're going to see the actual um nuclear division so the division of the nucleus okay so we go through the interphase this is when you know cells growing we're making copy of our DNA then we go into prophase prophase you see the nuclear envelope is kind of disintegrating we're getting rid of the the nuclear envelope okay um you also see that your spindle fibers are moving to the opposite sides um to kind of get prepared um and in metaphase that's when we're going to see that Tuggle War so we have these microtubules microtubules are
• 57:00 - 57:30 going to be attached to kinetic ORS that are going to be on the Cent mirrors of the chromatid um and so that's going to attach which then kind of they Tuggle war and as that Tuggle War It lines them up in the middle which is our metaphase you can remember like M for metaphase um and then anaphase when we see the COC chromis are going to be pulled apart two opposite poles and then we have telophase which is where we're going to see our two new nuclear okay um some people may call that tease but I do not call it that I call it a telophase but that's okay cuz it's a phone but whatever um and that's when we make our true new nuclei and then we go through cinis which is when we're going to
• 57:30 - 58:00 divide the cytoplasma okay so from um prophase through telophase this is all uh mitosis okay the steinis will take place after mitosis and the interphase takes place before mitosis okay um and so a couple years ago um I was in my student teaching or maybe more than a couple but whatever um and they did this thing called the cell cyle dance okay um and so we've got of course we're going to think just on mitosis okay so we have prophase metaphase actually let's just do cell cycle so G1 s G2 prophase
• 58:00 - 58:30 metaphase anaphase cell phase cinis yes I really just did that I just want to make sure the students got it penguin that's okay but anyway so we go through that where we had the G1 where we had our uh this is the DNA and then we go through S phase where we make a copy of that DNA um and then G2 is just when it grows prophase when we were preparing to divide the sister chromatids were going to condense and because of sister chromatids condense um they kind of find each of the sister chromos together and they pair up um and then we went into
• 58:30 - 59:00 metaphase metaphase is where we're going to see um that we've got the uh cises lined up in the metaphase plate then the anaphases when the C GES were moved apart telophases when we had our tuna nuclei and then cines is when we divide the cytoplasm okay that just woke you up anyway so what they might do is they might ask you questions about like I don't know there's cancer drug out there and the cancer drug inhibits the production of the microtubules and so
• 59:00 - 59:30 they're going to say Well when would it be arrested when is it going to stop okay um and so it's going to stop like right here because of the fact that we're not going to be able to go through anaphase because of the fact that we don't have those microtubules formed we're inhibiting them from taking place jump scare warning anyway so insulin is a protein hormone this is secreted in response to elevated blood glucose levels when insulin binds to its receptors in the liver cell the activated receptor stimulat a phosphorilation Cascade that caus a translocation of glucose transported to the plasma membrane based
• 59:30 - 60:00 on the information which the following best describes the role of insulin in this lover liver cell um signaling pathway okay so let's look at this it says we have a protein hormone protein hormone means that it's going to be a polar material so the membrane uh receptor okay um it then says it bind a receptor on the cell okay cool I knew that um it then says that we simulate a phosphation Cascade phosphation Cascade then that part of transduction and then that causes translocation of gluc glucose well that's my response so my signal is the insulin then the
• 60:00 - 60:30 phosphorilation Cascade is my transduction and then my response is translocation of glucose okay and so it's asking me what is the role of insulin well it's going to be the ceing molecule which one is a cing molecule is that a li I don't know is it a receptor no it says it binds the receptor so that's not it secondary messager secondary messager would have to be something that happens second so that can't be it and a protein kisee I know that's responsible for phosphorilation Cascade so the only logical answer we have is of course our ligant okay um so great job everybody who put that um on
• 60:30 - 61:00 there this one is actually in the ah I'm going to have myself this was actually in the CED um so it could be like that this is what we call one of those independent questions it's just a little bit of information and then you're answering that question okay um and so moving into unit five and I'm so sorry that's four o'clock but I'm moving as fast as I can I just want to make sure I give you as much of a review as I can if you have to leave because it's for I completely understand this recording will be available on my website it'll be available on my YouTube it will be available for you that you can come back and catch it later if you needed to
• 61:00 - 61:30 catch it later okay um and so in un5 this is where we get into meosis okay so meosis is going to be when we're making our gamits okay so our sex cells okay um and so we're going to go through two rounds of division but only one round replication so here you can see that replication that's taking place in our interface we make a copy and now we're going to talk about something called homologous chromosomes so before we were looking at Sister chromosomes so in mitosis we're all looking at the sisters now that we're in meosis we're talking about the homologous chromosomes homologous chromosomes means I have a maternal set and a paternal set so I've
• 61:30 - 62:00 got my mom's genes and my dad's genes okay um or the copy of my mom's Al my dad's a okay um so what we'll do is we go through two divisions the first division is our mosis one we go through prophase metaphase anaphase telophase and again zinesis um to divide it it's not actually called zinesis but it's not really important to know what the name of is so don't worry okay um and then we go through the second round division again prophase metaphase anaphase and telophase cyesis um and so the way that we differentiate the first round of the second round we just put a one behind it so everything that'll be in the first
• 62:00 - 62:30 round division is going to be prophase one metaphase one anaphase one and then tase one and then second division is prophase two inter phase two yeah yeah you get the idea okay um so there's things we have to make sure that we understand about this division okay so since we're now looking at homologous chromosomes the homologous chromosomes are what's lining up on the metaphase plate now so before we looked at mitosis it was Sister chromosom line on the metaphase plate now that we're in meosis we're looking at homologous chromosomes are line up on that metaphase plate okay and so when we go through anaphase 1 we now make haid cells so the end product
• 62:30 - 63:00 of meosis one are haploid cells that have sister chromatids so since I already have my sister chromatid I don't have to go through Division I sorry I don't have to go through replication and make a copy of that um sister chromatid um so I will then go through the second round and so the second round of division meosis 2 it's very similar to mitosis is exactly what we saw with the cister chromatins okay now there's some things that happen during meosis that allows for the genetic variability we have okay so the first thing is crossing over crossing over is going to take
• 63:00 - 63:30 place during prophase one so when our homologous chromosomes line up and kind of like not not line up but when they pair up in prophase when we're condensing and kind of getting all together you're going to see that your maternal chromosome and your paternal chromosome they can overlap okay so this would be chromosome one from Mom and chromosome one from Dad they overlap and when they overlap they can exchange genic information so this chromosome can be mostly mom with a little bit of dad and this chromosome can be mostly dad with a little bit of Mom okay and so you're able to get kind of slightly different um information okay um we also
• 63:30 - 64:00 see independent assortment taking place in metaphase 1 okay um so in metaphase so in metaphase one we're going to see um that uh we're going to have the hom chomos line up on that metaphase plate and so since the chromosomes line up on that metaphase plate um we're going to see that it could either line up where maternal on one side and paternal on the other or it could be the opposite way where have paternal and maternal okay so they can line up on opposite sides and it's independent for the 23 different sets of romes that we're looking at so you get a lot of variety in your games Okay um and
• 64:00 - 64:30 so there's that and I I kind of did the comparison as I was talking through that so kind of big comparisons is that they both have one round of of replication um mitosis say one division meosis has two divisions um there's going to be crossing over takes place in meosis that does not take place in mitosis there's going to be independent sortment that takes place in meosis that does not take place in mitosis um we're going to see division of sister chromatids in mitosis and we're going to see um homologous chromosomes in meosis um we're going to see that the parents uh
• 64:30 - 65:00 and the daughters in mitosis are genetically identical we make two Cells versus the meosis they are genetically distinct from the parent the parent is diploid and The Offspring are haid or the the gamet are haid okay so melan genetics okay so this is going to be where we look at like complete dominance and incomplete dominance and all that stuff okay so first thing before we get too far into this I want to make sure you understand that dominance doesn't mean prevalent okay um so dominance means means that it's going to make a protein while um the recessive usually doesn't make a protein um and so here we
• 65:00 - 65:30 see this individual okay count his fingers with me one 2 three four five six I have five how many fingers do you have do you have five anyways so this is called polya this is a dominant trait okay um and so most people that I know have five fingers on each hand okay um and so this is actually a genetic inherited trait and it's really cool isn't it they have six fingers like yeah
• 65:30 - 66:00 six diges um so just because it's dominant doesn't mean it's prevalent you don't really see most people having that trait because most people are going to be homozygous recessive and they're going to have five fingers on each hand in each foot okay um five toes on each foot yeah whatever okay so um we then want to kind of think about complete dominance versus other types okay so complete dominance means that if you have one dominant Al you're going to have the dominant trait if you um um have two recessives then you'll have the recessive trait okay um so that's where
• 66:00 - 66:30 it complete so you can be homozygous dominant or you be heterozygous and show the dominant trait okay versus then like incomplete dominance okay we have two dominant traits and both of them are kind of incompletely dominant okay um so they both make something so this one makes a red protein this one makes a white protein and when red and white come together they make pink okay and so this is going to be incomplete dominance okay if you were to cross these two pink ones again since they're heterozygous you would get a 1 to two to one r IO versus in our um monohybrid cross we get
• 66:30 - 67:00 a 3:1 ratio okay so that's kind of showing you the difference in the ratio okay this next diagram is a is a is a comic it's not true but it does show what I want it to show okay so here I have a black bear and a white bear okay and when I cross them together okay I'm going to get a bear that has both white parts and black Parts on it okay um and yes that' be like a black bear and a polar bear but those can't mate okay anyways and no they don't make panda bears okay anyways um so this is showing co-dominance okay so both of them are dominant and you can see them
• 67:00 - 67:30 individually as distinct pieces okay the same thing happens with your blood type okay so we have a blood type and B blood type and you have a the persons that have a blood type mean that they have both the a protein and the B protein on their red blood cells because they have of this co-dominance okay um then we also kind of with this they usually going to be some type of pedigree I can almost guaranteed you will have a pedig somewhere on your test okay so you need to be able to figure out whether it's dominant or recessive okay okay um I have noticed lately that they've been like using male as um an XY individual
• 67:30 - 68:00 and female as XX um so don't just see the XX and the XY and assume that we're looking at a Sex Link trait um because they have been kind of writing it differently just to be more inclusive okay um and so what we're looking at is whether it's found in every generation okay so if we look here I've got three and four of the parents and they have a child that does not I'm sorry that does have the trait but they didn't have it that immediately screams to me some type of recessive trait okay um and then when I look here I can see that um the father
• 68:00 - 68:30 didn't have it okay the mother didn't have it okay um I can see here that I have affected father okay I see that here I have a mother that's affected and a father that's not affected 19 would not be affected if we were looking at um sex lengths okay because the fact that the father doesn't have a faulty X to pass it on so we would not see sex linked recessive here because of the fact that he doesn't have that X to pass it on um and so we know that this is autosomal recessive okay um so we also
• 68:30 - 69:00 kind of think about non-mendelian gentics so nonex is looking at like um things that are U extraclear so things that are not actually part of the nucleus okay and so your mitochondrian or chloroplast they're believed to be procos and so because of that they have their own DNA so with what's happening tomorrow do you know what's happening tomorrow I know what's happening tomorrow tomorrow is Mother's Day so I figured I'd go ahead and say hey happy Mother's Day to all the moms in your life um just remembered how much to
• 69:00 - 69:30 thank them tomorrow because they gave you of course the ex chromosome they gave you the antibodies they gave you oxygen they gave you nutrients but more specifically in terms of what we're looking at they gave you mondal DNA and so if you have a question like last year I think there was a question on mitochondrial DNA and about like these different plants and what color they were going to be and the trait was a mitochondrial trait you have to follow where the mom is the mom is the one that has the mitochondrial and the mom is the one that's going to pass that on to her young okay every single young will get that trait from that mother okay um so
• 69:30 - 70:00 make sure that you do understand those nonillion things we we're looking at like uh mitochondrial and chloroplast inheritance okay um so here we have a diagram the following figure displays data collected from study and family some members of which have CLE cell disease um a rare genetic disorder caused by mutation in a hemoglobin beta Gene so HPV there are least two alal of it HBA and HBS um HBS causes Sickle Cell while HBA is wild type genic test then gives us Insight we have this beautiful little figure that we should probably look at a little bit bigger So based on
• 70:00 - 70:30 the figure data in the show which of best describes the genotypes of the individual family members okay so let me look in here let me see let me see let me see if I see here I got these two parents are unaffected but they have an affected child okay so that tells me that some type of recessive okay so that will tell me that my affected individuals are going to be HBS HBS because of the fact that this is a recessive trait okay so they have to have two of these recessive alals in order to have the the CLE cell trait or sorry the CLE cell disease okay versus those that are not affected are either
• 70:30 - 71:00 going to be heterozygous and they're going to be considered carriers or they'll have Cy cell trait instead of C cell disease um or they'll just be homozygous for the HBA alil okay and so we want to see which of these follows the genotype all affected individuals possess at least one dominant Al well if they're do okay all affected individuals have one dominant that's not right because of the fact that this one is homozygous recessive okay healthy individuals may possess one mutant Al well can I be healthy and still have the mutant well yes yes I can here I can be
• 71:00 - 71:30 HBS HBA which means that I can have one of those alals and then it says that uh what is that six four and five wherever you are four and five must be heterozygous they are both affected which tells me that they are not heterozygous and then two and six um have two copies they cannot have two copies because the fact that this one was able to pass on that recessive Al so I know that that D is also wrong so the answer had to be B okay so unit six okay this was where a lot of students have struggle I know that for my students this is one of their weakest units um
• 71:30 - 72:00 think about the difference between DNA and RNA we mentioned this earlier so DNA is going to have deoxy ribos RNA is going to have ribos um DNA is going to be double stranded RNA is going to be single stranded um we're going to see that there is a nitrogenous base of thyine in DNA and it's going to be uriol and RNA um and then we also can think about that they have different sugars I don't know if I said this already but they have deoxy ribos versus ribos okay um and so the central dogma is made up of like how we see this gene expression okay so we have our replication so we make a copy of the DNA reading DNA okay
• 72:00 - 72:30 so you're going to read DNA you will always read DNA thre Prime to five Prime okay so we're going to start where the hydroxy group is and go to where the phosphate group is okay because DNA is anti-parallel okay wherever you have a five Prime group you have a three prime group wherever you have a five Prime group you have a three prime group they are anti-parallel they're equidistance from each other they're equidistance because they have a purine in a perimidine in case I didn't mention this before a purine means it's going to have a double ring nitrogenous structure um that would be your adenine and your guanines um and then your perimedes are going to be a single ring structure
• 72:30 - 73:00 single Nitro nitrogen ring um and that would be your cytosine your urisol and your thyine okay so I always remember it as pure silver so purine is AG and then you want to cut the pyramid um c t cine neurocell and thyine okay um and so those are your big differences there um and then we're thinking about replication um we're going to read it three to Prime and we're going to make it five to Prime five we're going to read it 3 to 5 and we're going to make it 5 to three okay this will take place in our nucleus we then
• 73:00 - 73:30 go through transcription transcription is going to read that DNA and it's going to synthesize an RNA strand from that okay um so before I forgot to mention it DNA polymerase is going to be used to make that DNA polymer we have helicase which is going to break those hydrogen bonds that are between our nitrogenous bases um we also have um top isomerase which is going to relieve the strain Upstream um we have liat it's going to seal the linkage between them so like when you go through it um replication we've got a leading strand a lagging strand the leading strand is going to move continuously into replication fork while the lagging strand is going to
• 73:30 - 74:00 move discontinuously so it moves against like the fork so we we open up a little bit and it makes a little Strand and it opens up a little bit more makes another strand it keeps going against the replication fork um and so we have to put those okasaki fragments together using liase um so that was a replication so transcription we read the DNA um again 3 to five we synthesize the RNA 5 to3 using the enzyme RNA polymerase it's going to pry apart the two strands makes the copy and as that copy it kind of falls out to the outside um and so when we go through translation we're going to read that mRNA um and we're going to
• 74:00 - 74:30 start at the star code on being Aug you do not have to know the code on chart off the top of your head you do not have to have it memorized it will be given to you on the test I promise um and so then you will uh look at each of groups of three your codons to see what that correlates to in terms of your amino acids so Aug is methionine Au is isoline and ucg is our Serene and then of course we have UAA which is our stop code on you do not have to know the stop code on but of course if you are a fan of ug you know they're Unstoppable so you can remember that ug is one of your stop codons um there's some things that happen um after you go through transcrip
• 74:30 - 75:00 transcription in a UK carat that does not happen in a proc carot in terms of ukio we um go through um splicing and we cut out the different intron so these different non-coating regions can get cut out um and then we can add a five Prime cap so there's a guanine cap added to the one side and then there's a poly tail so a tail full of um adinin the guanine cap allows it to facilitate movement outside the nucleus as well as it allows for the um ribosome to know where to bind for Trans translation and the polyal is going to protect it from the hydrolytic enzymes that are in the
• 75:00 - 75:30 cyol that are going to try to shorten your Mr strand okay um there's different mutations that can take place a silent mutation is going to be um if we're talking about a point mutation um is going to be one nucleotide substit for another nucleotide but it still makes the exact same amino acid so it's silent you don't even notice it okay versus a non I'm sorry a missense mutation um it's like at the beginning of the thing which I don't even know if you noticed but I mentioned that you could go walk your dog or I said you could walk your fish that doesn't really make sense in the sentence now fish is actually an animal that's logical in that sense but
• 75:30 - 76:00 why would you go walk or fish okay so that's missense mutation you have one amino acid substitute for a different amino acid um and then nonsense would be if you just have a random stop cat on in the middle of your sentence so if I was in the middle of talking all of a sudden I just stopped talking um that would show the nonsense so my protein just prematurely stopped okay um we also have frame shift mutations if you have a deletion of one or two or you have insertion of one or two nucleotides it shifts the group of things so instead of you saying the cat ran too far you read to C far which doesn't make any sense so
• 76:00 - 76:30 it's making sure that you have the right reading frame and so if you add or subtract um one or two nucleotides and you mess up that grouping of three you could mess up the reading frame which then at least something different okay we also have biotechnology biotechnology is where we're going to see um where you have the gel electop freesis and you've got your PCR you got your transformation experiments all those type of things um so with the J frees what's going to happen is we're going to put the we're going to cut the DNA with restriction enzymes and then we're going to put it into a well um and so then we internal electricity on and the smaller fragments
• 76:30 - 77:00 are going to get pulled toward that positive uh region faster than our longer fragments are um so they're going to be pulled toward the positive end because DNA is negatively charged in case you don't know that DNA is negatively charged because it has a bunch of phosphate groups phosphate is negatively charged it's a p42 minus and so because of that negative charge DNA and RNA are of course negatively charged so they're being drawn toward that positive end of the gell phases okay if you see a thicker B band that means that there's more DNA there if there's a thinner band that means that there's less DNA there um and so often times
• 77:00 - 77:30 they could tell the difference between something that's homozygous or heterozygous because fact you'll have more bands with the heterozygous individual because they were cut differently and then uh the homozygous is going to have the same band of the same DNA and it's kind of kind of buckled on top of each other making it a thicker band okay um PCR is polymerous Chain Reaction we're going to go through and add the DNA and it then makes a chain reaction and makes multiple copies of it um and then transformation experiment is when you uh you transform back so yall um add the plasma to bacteria and then you made it antibiotic resistant so they asked you questions based on that okay um so here we have
• 77:30 - 78:00 this uh genetic disorder um it Alters our glucose metabolism of first symp in adulthood um we have this family that shows different Generations two and three are known to have the disorder um based on the Pedigree the Genesis concluded that the disorder arose individual two and three was caused by mutation in mitochondrial DNA that's important for us to know okay they then gave us this data um and then they were telling us when um individuals are normal at risk or affected okay so part a on these F frqs this is I think example number two so this is going to be a graphing question um they is going
• 78:00 - 78:30 to be a biology question do you know biology okay so the disorder Alters glucose metabolism describe the atoms and types of bonds in a glucose molecule so you have to think to yourself okay what's glucose glucose is a carbohydrate the different things that are in a carbohydrate I've got the carbo I've got the carbon and I've got the hydrate so hydrogen and oxygen so the three different atoms that make up a carbohydrate is a carbon hydrogen and an oxygen got that okay um I then have to come with a bond okay what b a bond what kind of bond glycosidic linkage is a bond what's the glyos linkage glyos
• 78:30 - 79:00 linkage is is between glucose molecules so that's not right I want in a glucose molecule that would be Co valent Bond so there's a calent bond between the carbon and the hydrogen and there's a calent bond between the oxygen and the hydrogen and there's a calent bond between the oxygen and the other carbons I got it it's a calent bond so the answer here is carbon hydrogen oxygen and they're held together by calent bonds so you kind of think through those questions come up with where you think the answers are okay second thing we now have to use the template in the space provided to construct and properly labeled graph based on the data okay so looking at
• 79:00 - 79:30 this data I have individuals and I have numbers that is categorical data I'm looking each individual and how their um level specifically work so this will be a bar graph okay so you'll label your axis so average glucose level um make sure you have your unit so I usually just take whatever is in the title of the the chart and I use that as my title it kind of helps me to ensure that I've kept my units and I've got everything I need to have okay um and then have my individuals on my x- axxis okay so then I would graph them all okay so when I
• 79:30 - 80:00 graph them um I would put of course they pre-made this side for me which was great um and they already had all them um labels I already knew those but I had to label the bottom okay so I put my bars on there when you're graphing these bar graphs you want to make sure that you don't shave them in number one it's taking up time number two um it's going to cover up your air bar in a second so if you do have to shape because you're differentiating two different samples um then make sure that you uh don't cover up the error bar okay um and so you may be saying well Miss Jones what are you talking about with the error bar so I
• 80:00 - 80:30 graphed 170 here is 170 there's this plus or minus 15 I don't know what to do with that that is your air bar you're going to go above by 15 and you're going to go below by 15 same thing with our second one we have 190 I'm going to go above by 10 and Below by 10 and I would do all of them but you can follow that right now and you can look at each of these data points and you can see above and below that I went that a certain amount okay keep in mind I graphing this on computer so there's chance that I'm a little bit off but they should be right okay so I now need to determine one
• 80:30 - 81:00 individual who is at risk for developing the disorder okay so these were the people that were at risk okay so they're normal if they are less than 140 okay and they're affected if they're over 200 okay so I gave myself this little line to kind of help you see where we're looking at okay and so when I look here and I want to say who is um at risk and they have a significantly different blood glucose level from 41 so 41 is this person right here so when I'm saying I want a statistically different okay that means that I want the um I
• 81:00 - 81:30 want the the air bars to not overlap okay so if I look here I can see that this one overlaps and this one overlaps so 2 two I'm sorry 42 and four four both overlap okay but then right here this one doesn't overlap so I know oh I did make a graph um so I can see that this one is completely out so that would be our 43 is going to be the one that is within our range of being at risk as well as the air bar does not overlap so
• 81:30 - 82:00 it tells me that that one is the one that's statistically significant okay um so great job to x y l i l s great job I saw that you got your answer right yeah yeah yay okay um so there was that one so going on to three um sorry C based on pedigree identify all individuals in generation 4 that can pass on the mutation to their children okay so if I'm looking at this generation right here I need figure out who can pass it on okay it told me in the prompt that it is a mitochondrial trait because of the
• 82:00 - 82:30 fact that I know it's a mitochondrial trait who is the only person who can pass it on the only person that's able to pass on a mitochondrial trait is the one that passes on the mitochondria and the person who passes on the mitochondria is the mother so I'm looking for the females in this chart okay I'm looking for these circles okay so one is able to pass it on because it's parent passed it on to it right its mother passed it on okay two three and four also have an effect Ed mother okay two is a female and four is a female but three is not a female a male will not
• 82:30 - 83:00 pass it on to his offspring because of the fact that he doesn't pass on his mitochondria okay I love that typo um and then here we look at five and six we have an affected father the father doesn't pass it on so five and six are not affected so they also cannot pass it on so we're going to say that one two and four are going to be the ones that are affected okay and they going to be able to pass it on okay um I don't it's not sex link it's mitochondrial it told us in the
• 83:00 - 83:30 prompt which I can if I can get back fast enough um but right here it tells you right here it's caused by mutation the mitochondrial DNA it told you right there mitochondrial DNA a lot of us will just overlap that and we don't see that that's why I was mentioning that we want to underline and circle things that could be important to us okay so knowing 41 42 and 44 um again it tells us to identify you probably are okay to just write the numbers like this but personally I tell my students to write this as a complet sentence the individuals are like that's three words the individuals are is three words how hard is it to write three words to
• 83:30 - 84:00 ensure you get your point okay okay so um based on the fact that individual two three I apparently didn't hide the answer key on this one um is affected so here we're looking at 2 two is affected a student claims that a disorder is inherited in an EXC length recessive pattern based on student claim prict which individuals of Generation 3 will be affected by the disorder okay so we're saying here's the claim this is sex linked okay so ignore all of the things that you were kind of
• 84:00 - 84:30 thinking about in terms of mitochondrial okay you now need to think sex linked okay and who passes on sex linked anybody who's affected that has an X okay um that has the affected X okay so when we look at this we've got this affected female right here that passes it on okay so she can pass it on to um the two she can also pass it on to four she pass it on to six and she passes it on to eight okay um but we were trying to say who's going to be affected okay well a male they get one of these X chromosomes right and so we are showing
• 84:30 - 85:00 that it can't be two or six because the fact that they didn't get that second X from their father their father does not have an affected X and th we still see that they were affected two and six should not be affected if it was sex linked and so we got to of course say that they're out of the whole thing okay um so of course we were looking at 34 and 38 um would be the uh individuals that would still be affected by the disorder and are just the is talking about the fact that um we wouldn't see it in 2 or six okay I'm so sorry that I ran long y'all
• 85:00 - 85:30 I'm just trying to make sure I give you as much as I can give you um so Unit Seven is on Evolution okay this is where we see natural selection okay this was do not say survival the fittest um this is where we see the um descents with modification um or uh natural selection so this in this population that's on the dark Rock we have these mice and I'm assuming you've done the rock pocket Mouse uh shout out to hhmi with that rock pocket lab I love it these Snickers of the desert of course um and so if you're looking at this these mice that
• 85:30 - 86:00 are darker are able to kind of blend in with the environment and so because of the fact that they can blend in with the environment these kind of lighter mice do not and so they are consumed by the Hawks and these other visual predators that can kind of eat them and go eat them yeah ra tala um so they eat them and they get rid of them and so then we see that our population over time is becoming more of this darker complexion and this darker color okay so that's that natural selection okay we got to make sure we mention things when we say natural selection okay and we're going to see that an individual is more likely
• 86:00 - 86:30 to survive and that the individual is more likely to pass on those traits to its Offspring okay and its offspring are more likely to survive it's going to have more offspring okay be very careful you do not talk about individuals are going to evolve a population evolves this population of mice evolved so there was a more of the individuals that were darker there was an increase in the ilal frequency in the population okay do not say that there's like anything like the only thing that causes this is a mutation that gets passed on so it has
• 86:30 - 87:00 to be in the gamat so if you have purple hair your children are not going to have purple hair because it's not in your gametes well I guess it could be in your gamet but most of y'all have purple hair don't have it in your candies okay um so on to Hardy weberg okay um so if you've never watched the Paul Anderson video of the Ted Ed the Five Fingers of evolution just literally Google Five Fingers of evolution okay um then you're going to see that there are this way to kind of help remember so our little finger is meant to kind of help us to remember that we've got um we need to have an extremely large population size
• 87:00 - 87:30 extremely large population size um is going to allow for genetic drift to not have an effect okay um the second one we have of course is that we want there to be random mating if it is sexual selection anyway there are certain traits that are more favorable because those traits are more favorable it's going to lead to Evolution okay we want there to be no mutations we can't have any new alals added to that population okay no new ones then um our finger is for gene flow we want there to be no gene flow nothing can enter nothing can leave my population and then of course my thumb no natural selection if any of
• 87:30 - 88:00 these five things are violated then we could see that the population could evolve okay and when I say evolving I'm talking about Hardy Weinberg changing right I'm talking about the alals changing okay if my Leal frequency changes if my genotype frequency changes if any of those numbers change the population is evolving okay you've violated one of these five rules okay um so we will do a math in a little bit do not worry I have a fun math question for you um so the other thing we have is philogyny okay so there's probably going to be a phenic tree whether you constructing one or picking one out of a
• 88:00 - 88:30 multiple choice there is a phenic tree somewhere on your graph I I Feel It In My Bones um so this is a cogram they gave you a character table and from that character table um they asked you to figure out which one was more accurate um the this is due to morphological characteristics and then they're going to ask you okay now this was from 2023 okay they said we need you to put on the trait for extra tooth material so the way that I always think about this is like you're walking down a road you're driving down a street any of these traits that you pass by you pick up or
• 88:30 - 89:00 drop off okay so if you um need to have the trait for the B Vine that means that on this path right here I need to somewhere get that extra tooth okay so which one does the giraffe have the tooth nope so that means it had to have happened on the pathway that went just to the badine okay and the same thing here with the antel whatever the Zay whatever it is it's also on that so they have independently gotten this trait okay so you can actually have two individuals get a similar trait um due
• 89:00 - 89:30 to convergent evolution this is conversion Evolution um similar environment um even though they don't have a direct common ancestor okay um we also can see phalogenic trees phenic trees are going to look like this they kind of look like a tree um and hey this works out for your question you just asked in the chat um and then of course this is a clay diagram okay so on this um this shows us the different bears and we're looking at a timeline so they're wanting to know like you know how long things happen so something I want you to make sure you notice about this is that there's this Branch point so right where I'm putting that little dot that's a
• 89:30 - 90:00 branch Point okay that means that's the common ancestor of both the European brown bear and the polar bear okay this was arbitrarily placed there was no reason why the European brown bear was on the top and the polar bear was on the bottom so you can rotate at any time that you have one of those branch points so we could actually have had polar bear here and European brown bear down here so you're able to rotate them okay um versus we also could have a branch Point here okay so that shows you us that the the Asian brown bear and the western North American brown bear could also rotate okay they could give you a an amino acid chart or an amtide chart and
• 90:00 - 90:30 you have to then figure out where you're going to put them okay if you have to make a phen tree they're going to give you a template and you're going to fill it in it'll be like question five on the AP on the frq I don't think it will be but it could be um so here we're looking at where are the most similar differences okay so um the black bear and the brown bear they only share one difference oh I'm ahead of myself I'm sorry um on theogenic tree they asked us when was the most recent ancestor of all the bear all the brown bears and you would have said like 3. like three 3.4 um hundreds of thousands of years um
• 90:30 - 91:00 watch the axes on your questions sometimes they um will flip it on you and so this was going one to 50 so a lot of students got this wrong because they like quickly looked at their uh axes okay so make sure you read the axes correctly anyway so um the black bear and the brown bear have one um amino acid difference here okay so because of that difference we know that they're going to be placed together on that Branch point so we have black and brown um we then have our polar bear because it has seven and eight differences from the black and brown bear versus the panda bear has 33 34 and 40 differences
• 91:00 - 91:30 between the other bear so we know that the panda bear would be my out group and y'all know that the panda bear is actually more related to a raccoon than it is related to other Bears or at least I hope you know that okay um we also have a branch point so the black and the brown bear could rotate here I arbitrarily Place black and black and brown okay so did I answer everything yeah okay oh and then last but not least evidence of evolution so there's a lot of different evidence of evolution um so you could talk about like homologous structures homologous structures mean they have the same structure because of the fact that they had a common ancestor and that common ancestor of course has
• 91:30 - 92:00 that trait that we then pass on to our Offspring okay um you could also talk about like embryology they have similar embryologic development you were born with a TA or you were in Embry development you had a tail because our ancestors had a tail um you could also talk about like um looking at molecular evidence so the DNA or the proteins um and so um DNA is going to be more accurate than protein because you could have a silent mutation and the silent mutation could then lead to um a difference in the DNA that doesn't show up in the protein um so DNA and protein
• 92:00 - 92:30 are more accurate and DNA is more accurate than the protein okay um and then of course you could use morphological data like they did in that uh this last penic this example right here they use morphological data to make the biogenic drain I'm sorry the cogram um so five new species of of bacteria were discovered in Arctic Ice core samples the nucleotide base sequences of the r RNA substances were determined for the new species the table below shows the number differences between the species so this is kind of what we might see on the exam in terms of a phalogenic tree question or a clgr question um they might ask you
• 92:30 - 93:00 to pick out which one it is and so we look here and we can see that the um number three and four have one difference so I know that three and four have to be kind of branched together okay um and so we know that that means that this one is out because three and four are not together on a branch point and then over here I can see also that three and four are not together on a branch point so I can cancel let out versus here I see three and four together and three and four together so I know that those are two valid answers potentially okay um then I look here and
• 93:00 - 93:30 I say okay well one and three I'm sorry one and two have three nucle differences so one and two need to be branched together here I see two here I see one H that one's not it but here I see two and one branched together and of course five has the most differences from all of them so I know they're going to separate out analogous structures are due to convergent evolution analogous structures mean that they look similar even though they're not similar so a flying squirrel and a sugar glider um would be ala structure they both have that little structure underneath their arms that allows them to jump out of a tree and kind of Glide and so because of that difference um we're going to see
• 93:30 - 94:00 that uh they're actually on a placental On's a marsupial and because of that difference um we know they're not actually related to each other but they have similar structures because they were in a similar environment that similar environment then leads to them of course having a similar trait and and I see some of the answers coming in the chat now so great job to Sarah and red one um for the the first answers on saying that it was C great job y'all um okay so here we have a numeric response there is no numeric response on your
• 94:00 - 94:30 test they could be found in a multichoice section um or they could be found in a free response question okay but you don't have an official um numeric response but I did want to talk about some math real fast okay so centives is studying a population of flowers with three different color phenotypes the color phenotype demonstrates incomplete dominance the scientists collected data on the color of 100 flowers the data shown below to test the hypothesis that the population is in Hardy Weinberg the scientist performed a Kai Square test yes we're going to do a Kai Square I know you're so excited to do kai Square
• 94:30 - 95:00 my students are so tired of Kai square but you you're excited I know you're excited um so they gave us the number observed we had 70 that were red 20 that were purple and 10 that were blue okay um and so when we do this test we of course need to figure out well what am I doing well Hardy Weinberg had this formula it was p^2 + 2 p 2 + Q ^2 = 1 then p + 1 = Q okay so I need to verify is this what's happening but the problem is is that I need to count my alals because one of the values is going to
• 95:00 - 95:30 come from my P squ 2pq q^2 and then one of my values is going to come from what I visibly see right so I need to do the counting alals method okay so to count my alals I'm going to solve for my P okay I'm going to say 2 * 70 why am I doing 2 * 70 because there are two of these Capital A's here and I'm going to add 20 because there's one capital A so that will tell me that my P is 08 was 160 so 2 * 70 was 140 + 20 gave me 160 and there is 200 total alals CU there's
• 95:30 - 96:00 100 individuals that each have two alals um so that's 200 so 160 divid by 200 gives me 08 I would do the same thing for my Q okay where I've got 10 UND dividuals that are homozygous recessive I do two times my homozygous recessive because they have two of those alals plus my heterozygous because they have one of those alals giving me 40 um and then the 40 divided by the 200 gives me 02 okay so now that I know my pm my Q I can use it to solve p^2 2pq and Q ^2 so to find p^ s I take my whatever my P is
• 96:00 - 96:30 and I Square it um and that gives me 64 so that tells me there should be 64 individuals because there was 100 individuals total so it tell me there should be 64 individuals that should be this homozygous dominant red color right um and then this is a typo that should be two lowercase A's I'm sorry y'all um so in this one I'm going to do my q^ squ so Q um was 2 2 squ is 04 do not write four be very careful that you do not mess up when squaring these decimals they um don't act like you think they do um so then 4 04 * 100 gives me four
• 96:30 - 97:00 individuals so that tells me there should be four that are blue and again I'm sorry for that typo that should be two lowercase A's right here okay and then we solve 2pq so 2 * my P being8 * my Q being 0.2 which gives me 32 so that tells me I should have 32 individuals so when I do my Kai Square oh yes I use this beautiful table I always use a table I don't know why it just makes sense for my brain to kind of conceptualize it and put it into little places like this so took my oberved I had 70 I had 20 and I had 10 okay so that adds up to 100 okay um it would not
• 97:00 - 97:30 be a 9 to3 to3 to1 ratio because the fact we're not looking at a heterozygous cross um a DI hybrid cross and actually and we're looking at incomplete dominance um so here we have our expected this is what we solved using the counting Al um method right we counted the AL we figured out our P we figured out our q and then we did that um with the Hardy Weinberg which is an estimation okay since we know the number of alals we have to always use the county Al method so it's an estimation okay um so we then do 70 minus 64 giving me 6 20 - 32 which
• 97:30 - 98:00 should be -2 sorry for that typo um 10 - 4 which gives me six I then Square it giv me 36 um 144 and 36 which gets rid of my negative so it's perfectly fine um and then we go and take our um 36 divided by our expected so observe M expected squared divided by expected will give me 5625 4. 5 9 which then added together gives me 14.06 am I done oh no I need to figure
• 98:00 - 98:30 out if it actually affects it okay so here I have this degree of Freedom Ki Square okay um no this is not looking at a heterozygous thing this was looking at um a incomplete dominance and they told you in the question okay so on this okay and this is where students get tripped up and this is why I'm putting this in this review right they were asking about Hardy Weinberg Hardy wber is looking at a p and a Q There are two alals okay which means my degree of freedom is 2
• 98:30 - 99:00 minus one which is 3.84 okay so that means I'm going to compare this to that okay so 3.84 is less than my calculated value so if what you find is greater than the value in the chart you're going to reject your null hypothesis this population is not in Hardy Weinberg okay if the value you you solve is less than the value here you're going to fail to reject your null you can't accept your
• 99:00 - 99:30 null but you can fail to reject your null okay so great job to everybody who just got that one right okay and on to unit eight because Miss Jones is still talking for some unknown reason um this should say ecology I'm sorry I messed up here clearly I was at the end of trying to like get this PowerPoint put together and I was tired um so we have our energy flow so in energy flow we're looking at that there's about 10% that goes from one energy level to the next energy level okay each time you're losing heat so we have our producers we have our primary consumer secondary consumer CER consumer quary consumer primary consumer eats of course our primary producers
• 99:30 - 100:00 secondary eats our primary tertiary EO secondary and so on and so forth okay um and so what we see is that they can ask us questions about um if something happens to one of these levels okay so if there is some reduction in our primary producer okay um then we're going to see that there's going to be a decrease in the whole level up okay if there's a decrease in my tertiary consumer that means my secondary consumers are going to increase because the fact that um they're not being consumed as quickly okay um and so you're kind of figuring out that of course we've got this trait right um we
• 100:00 - 100:30 also have population ecology so this is where we see some more maths right um so here we're seeing that we've got exponential growth so this is our j-shaped curve so there is unlimited resources there's um nothing to keep that population in check okay um and then we have of course our s-shaped curve okay this is where we see our population size kind of having a caring capacity okay so once we reach that caring capacity um we're going to see that it kind of like levels off because of the fact that there's something that's limiting that population okay um
• 100:30 - 101:00 and so that would be our logistic growth so you may have to do this math where you have your R Max times your n that's going to be showing you your change in your population over time and and if we're in logistic growth which means we have our caring capacity that K stands for caring capacity we'll do our R times our um n and then we do K minus n over K so caring capacity minus our population size over the caring capacity um the closer that your population size gets to capacity the decreasing of the rate the rate is just looking at the slope so if they ever ask you for a rate on the AP exam they're asking you for the slope of
• 101:00 - 101:30 the whole thing okay so as you see our slope decreases because our rate is going to decrease as we approach that uh caring capacity okay and then last but not least we have our community ecology Community ecology is just looking at the interactions that the different individuals are having in our community okay um so we have of course predation it's going be positive for the Predator negative for the prey because they're being eaten um mutualism they can both be benefiting and so this is actually an obligate neutralism because the fact that they have to live together so like the termite and the um protozoa they have to be together in order to survive I don't know if this one is I me I
• 101:30 - 102:00 thought this was termite when I first looked at I'm sorry um we also have competition so they could be competing for the same resource if there is um if they're going through competitive exclusion that means one of them is not going to survive so we'll pass out um I had the calculator shortcut for KI Square on my Kai Square video by the way um we also have parasitism so we have a parasite it could be an endoparasite or a ectoparasite endoparasite means that it's going to um be on the inside Ecto on the outside like like a flea is an ectoparasite um versus like a tapeworm
• 102:00 - 102:30 is an endo parasite okay and then we have commensalism where one of them is benefit and one of them has no effect okay so we have these beak whales they feed at various depths they defecate at the ocean's surface nutrient Rich whal Fe deposit the surface water supply nutrients for algae that are eaten by surface dwelling fish okay so there's these fish um and they eat the nutrients from the feces that are full of nitrogen okay so which of the F best predicts what it's going to happen okay so here I have a whale and then here's of course the um algae that use it and then here's
• 102:30 - 103:00 the fish that eat the algae okay so I draw myself a picture it kind of helps you to figure out like what you're seeing here okay and so they say what would happen if there is a decrease in the whale population so there's no more whale bye-bye whale okay what happens okay so um if there's a decrease of the whale that means that there's less feces at the top so that means there's Ness nitrogen for this Al which means there's less fish okay um so there would be a reduction in the surface nitrogen concentration cool which would cause an alal Bloom we know alal blooms are not
• 103:00 - 103:30 due to nitrogen um being an an an absence we know that there needs to be a large amount of nitrogen that's what causes the alcohol Bloom surface fish population would decline due to reduced population algae so the algae doesn't have enough food um so we would see less algae and since we have less algae we have less fish that's logical and then the surface raining whales would accumulate mutations that has nothing to do with this the remaining whales would be forced to forge a deeper parts of the ocean again this is nothing to do with a whale being gone okay um so that was our answer so testosterone Oxo reductase is
• 103:30 - 104:00 a liver enzyme that regulates the testosterone levels in an alligator one study compares the testosterone Oxo reductase activity between a male and a female alligators um between there's a pristine woodr um versus a contaminated AA POA um and the graph above shows the findings okay so they want to know what are the data in the graph best supports which of the following okay so we're looking at this graph and we say okay well this one's pristine and this one's contaminated you can ignore my children talking in the background I'm so sorry y'all um and so we want to see okay how do the male affected and how is the
• 104:00 - 104:30 female affected so here I see the female is going to have a decrease in its activity because of the fact that it's between the pristine and the C contaminated so the contamination must be decreasing um our uh like the the amount of reductase usage okay um versus if we look at the male these air bars are overlapping so since the air bars overlap like this this tells me that this day is not statistically significant so the contamination is not having any effect on the male's oxid reductase activity so we look through
• 104:30 - 105:00 our an choices environmental contamination elevates total activity in females that is false because we see the it going down environmental contamination um reduces the total testosterone in females that's true we do see that okay um and then we say elevating in the males it does not Elevate the males um it doesn't reduce it you could look at the bars and say that it does reduce like the the mean does but the air barss don't over I'm sorry the air bars do overlap so it tells us that D is wrong and I'm seeing a whole bunch of B's in the chat so
• 105:00 - 105:30 great job to everybody okay so that's all of the units but let's think about like science practices and kind of what happens here so we have independent variables and dependent variables in your F frqs you're going to be asked about these variables okay so independent variable is going to be what the scientist is changing what did they modify and because of the fact that they modified it then what happens because of that which would be your dependent variable okay so in the question it's going to say to you the researcher change that's your independent variable the researcher measure or it's going to
• 105:30 - 106:00 show you in the data table that measurement okay so independent is what the researcher changed the dependent depends on that independent and that's what's going to get changed that's what they're going to measure that's what happened in the experiment okay your null hypothesis is going to be um that the independent variable has no effect on dependent variable okay there should be no no difference between your control and your treatment group they should be the same okay you can't say like that there's just nothing there you have to
• 106:00 - 106:30 just say that the two are the same okay um so in your null hypothesis independent variable has no effect on dependent variable and be very specific about the question okay um like they give you the prompt be very like use your prompt tell them back to them if you just say independent variable and dependent variable and don't identify the independent and dependent you're not going to be able to get points on that you have to be very clear about about your question okay um and then positive and negative controls your positive control is one that you know what is going to happen Okay versus your
• 106:30 - 107:00 negative control is going to be like um without the treatment group okay so in this experiment this is our transformation lab okay you had your minus P glow that means it doesn't have the plasma okay so it's not going to be able to glow and it's not going to be able to um grow in the presence of uh antibiotics okay we have an lb plate here so this makes sure that my bacteria survives that it is actually viable bacteria that it is good to go okay um and then over here so that would be my negative control because it doesn't have
• 107:00 - 107:30 the plasmid okay um and because it doesn't have the antibiotic and then here I don't have the plasmid okay cool but I do have the antibiotic so this is I wouldn't I would expect that since it doesn't have plasmid and it does have antibiotic that it's not going to survive and so this ensures that when I do look at this lab that does have the um the plasmid that allows me to attest that the um plasmid is the reason why it grew so this right here is my positive control so the first one's my negative
• 107:30 - 108:00 control second one's my positive control okay so other things about your graph make sure you know what types of graph it is okay if you have um categorical data that's a bar graph if you have linear data so you have time at 5 10 15 20 you have concentrations 2.4 6.8 that is a line graph okay if you have three sets of data and you're comparing two of them and then you've got just like indiv individuals or locations or something like that but you're comparing these two sets of data and then you got this random third one that's a scatter plot and you could have a box and whisker we
• 108:00 - 108:30 have not had one where you've had to graph a box and whisker okay but there is this thing called a box and whisker and it was on question six last year so if you want to like look over a frq that has to do with a bar and whisker and make sure that you understand how to do um bar and whiskers okay that's what this is okay so this is bar and whisker I'm sorry not bar and whisker y'all I'm sorry I'm tired box whisker box it's a box see box and then you got these little whiskers anyways so this is showing us a um like if this was all of
• 108:30 - 109:00 your data okay um then you're going to say okay from here to here this is 25% of your data from the top of your box to the this little line in the middle of your box that's going to be the next 25% of your data from the line to the bottom of the box that's the next 25% and then the line to the bottom is the rest of the data right it's the very last 25% okay um and so we're going to see that this is our our stretch of data okay and then the line in the middle is your median so last year they asked the students to explain where the which one had the lowest median which one have the highest median and all you had to do was
• 109:00 - 109:30 just be able to look at the box and whisker and say oh this one had the lowest number okay so it wasn't really a hardcore question they just wanted you to look at it um and then they also were asking about the stretch of it I did an fq Friday video on this um so it's I think the I don't know maybe like 29 or 28 um but you can see it says 2023 number six on it it's on my YouTube page um so things about your number one you want to label your axes you get points for labeling the axes and scaling correctly okay scaling your axes this is
• 109:30 - 110:00 important okay each box has to be the same amount do I have to label every box no I do not have to label every box but each box has to still be equal so if you're counting by fives okay and you go up every two then you're just going to write 10 20 30 40 okay if you're counting by twos then and you want to only write on every fifth box okay you would do five boxes there's 10 five boxes there's 20 okay make sure that each box is the same amount okay graph your data points making sure that you do
• 110:00 - 110:30 correctly graph them and then make sure you have your eror bars most recently we've seen you get a point for your axes a point for the correct graph and a point for um your data and your air bars in previous years we've had a point for axes data points and air bar so there's usually those kind of mixes and mingles and then they're going to ask you to analyze it okay so more math that's not on your formula sheet so um identify the percent I'm sorry calculate the percent change in apa activity in the wild type
• 110:30 - 111:00 ye strains in the high Pi Pi compared to low Pi you don't really need to know what the question to asking about I just wanted you to like pull this two data here okay um so they've been asking for percent change the past three years it's been on the exam asking percent change okay um so with your percent change um what we're going to do is we'll do our final value minus our initial value over our initial time 100 okay so our final value was 17.3 our initial value was 0.5 um so we did 17.3 minus 0.5 over .5 and
• 111:00 - 111:30 multiply by 100 they gave me 16.3 over .5 that gives me 33.6 * 100 and that gives me 3,360 perent okay because it says to calculate the percent change so you need to con like move this back into um like percent format okay I would not use an erasable pen on the exam it does go away okay so I think at this point since I'm almost at two hours I should not do a Q&A um but on my Instagram if you do not already follow me um on my Instagram
• 111:30 - 112:00 every single day um so Sunday through probably Tuesday I'm going to have a question box and you can ask whatever questions you have on that question box um and I will answer them in my story I've been doing this since February 1st um and so all the questions that have been asked since the beginning of my review are all stored in my highlights um so you'll see them at the top of Instagram little highlights um it just says Q&A 1 2 3 4 whatever I've got Tik toks you don't need to follow the Tik Tok it's fine whatever and then of
• 112:00 - 112:30 course you're already on my YouTube panel because you already know that okay um I am going to go live with Marco learning on Wednesday so if you you know want to see something again um I'm probably going to have to cut it a lot um for my Marco session because I have to stay at an hour because I'm on his YouTube page um so yeah um there's that so I hope that this was helpful um I'm sorry sorry that I ran over by like 53 minutes um but I hope that you remember that um you are penguins um and you are
• 112:30 - 113:00 dressed for success and you're going to rock this whole test um and I do know that there is a weird lag and so I don't want all that message to go away um so I'm here for you I'm excited for you I'm waiting for this video to catch up um so I'm just going to look at what's in the chat um yes it's going to be 8:00 P.M eastern time um with Marco learning um thank you for being here and for supporting this um you know let your friends know AP Bio penguins that take AP Bio next year um because I'm you know
• 113:00 - 113:30 happy to help y'all however I can help um and of course shout out to miss uh m m miss mclinton my I cannot talk right now y'all um because she has been like killing it in the chat helping you all with all of your questions and I'm sorry that like I wasn't able to answer them as fast as I wanted to because like there was 200 of y'all in here I'm so proud of y'all anyway so I think I have killed enough time um and I hope